Maintaining Good Communication in Childcare

Keeping up Good Communication in Childcare Rebecca Ellis 1.1 Explain the procedure for keeping up compelling correspondence inside the setting group. Viable correspondence permits all individuals from the group to cooperate to give the highest caliber of childcare conceivable. The key abilities required for powerful correspondence are; Verbal correspondence. Non-verbal correspondence. Perusing. Composing. Tuning in. Great correspondence is fundamental in accomplishing and keeping up solid working associations with all individuals from staff with in the nursery condition. It will likewise assist with keeping the standard of work inside the nursery to an elevated requirement, accomplishing the most extreme outcomes with administering bodies, for example, OFSTED and ESTYN. Poor correspondence in the nursery will definitely prompt unmotivated staff that may start to scrutinize their own trust in their capacities or search for an occupation in another nursery. Managers who put time and vitality into conveying away from of correspondence will quickly develop levels of trust among workers, prompting increments in efficiency, yield and assurance when all is said in done. (Michael Page. www.michaelpage.co.uk.15/11/13). Methodologies for compelling correspondence: Week after week staff gatherings with minutes to be taken, composed and given to all individuals from staff. Have a peaceful room nearby. for example an office. Right non-verbal communication, ensuring it’s suitable in various circumstances. A decent audience, seeing all regions of correspondence accurately. Be agreeable to all individuals from staff, keeping up an expert connection with all. React to circumstances tranquilly and not respond severely or dissatisfaction. Utilize the 4c’s. Appreciation (Keep it basic) Believability (Get to the point) Association (Be as intriguing as could be expected under the circumstances) Infectiousness (Motivate the staff in to activity) (Isabelle Albanese. (2007) The 4cs of truth. US. Fundamental Market Publishing.) Obstructions of powerful correspondence and answers for the hindrances. Obstructions in correspondence ordinarily fall in to two classifications, verbal and non-verbal. Verbal hindrances are the point at which the environmental factors or a person’s individual conditions impact how/what they decipher when talking and tuning in to another person. A non-verbal hindrance is when somebody’s activities or non-verbal communication impact the correspondence. On the following page are a few instances of these. 1.2 Understand the significance of the examination procedure and how records for staff can be logged. Explanations behind the examination procedure to occur in a nursery setting are; To recognize regions of the expected set of responsibilities in which the individual from staff is succeeding. To concentrate on any regions in which the necessary standard isn't being accomplished and to offer assistance, guidance and backing in these territories. To concur with the individual from staff focuses for future improvement in regions inside the nursery setting. To help the individual from staff to build up their aptitudes, information and ability. To support and propel staff by tuning in to what they need to accomplish. To help individuals from staff distinguish their own qualities and shortcomings. To ensure that individuals from staff and the nursery are cooperating. To empower compelling correspondence, it is perfect to convey on a 1-1 premise the staff. It is significant for both the nursery as a business and individual staff advancement to energize and give on-going preparing in each part of the nursery medical attendants job. This makes progressively powerful staff associations with nursery the executives and furthermore helps the nursery as a business to push ahead and set an exclusive expectation of expert practice. Staff evaluations are not for discipline and ought to never be utilized as a complaint methodology. It is only for both staff and nursery the executives to cooperate to improve norms of accomplishment and care for the youngsters that go to the nursery. It additionally gives a chance to successful correspondence on a 1-1 premise with staff. Execution evaluations ought to be completed each year, around that month the representative began working for the nursery. This is a chance to investigate the past year’s examination structure and to talk about any objectives that may/probably won't have been accomplished. It is in every case best practice to permit the staff part to time to accomplish targets which have not been met with the end goal for them to meet all requirements for any compensation ascends due. Pay rises are connected to the nursery pay scale. Along these lines the staff part ought to be given the past year’s individual examination structure ahead of time of the gathering occurring. Case of an evaluation structure. Targets set to improve execution in explicit territories: What useful assistance/further instruction would bolster the individual from staff in growing further abilities, information and mastery? Some other remarks? Marked ________________________________Date____________________ www.silkysteps.com (13/12/13) 1.3 Identify the right methodology to follow with respect to disciplinary and complaint issues. The disciplinary system happens when a business has concerns or a grumbling about a representatives work thus they may choose to make disciplinary move against them. There are various reasons why a business may choose to make disciplinary move against a worker. These incorporate the individual from staffs: Conduct at work Nonattendance from work Standard of work. www.adviceguide.org.uk (14.12.2013) The disciplinary strategy ought to consistently begin with a letter to the worker expressing that a gathering is to happen. This needs to incorporate the date, time and spot where the gathering is to be held. The letter would need to unmistakably state who might be available at the gathering and it likewise needs to incorporate data the representative may discover valuable for example that they are permitted an observer to be available for their benefit. The letter ought to be given to the worker in any event 72 hours before the gathering is to occur. All proof must be gathered by the administration before the gathering is to occur with the goal that all realities can be expressed and examined during the gathering. Witnesses can be assembled in to the conference to give records of the disciplinary occurrence/episodes. Minutes/notes of the gathering ought to be taken by another individual from the supervisory group so the individual from staff directing the gathering can give their full fixation to the gathering. Individuals from the board staff ought to consistently remain unbiased and be reasonable for all sides of the disciplinary procedure. â€Å"Innocent until demonstrated guilty† ought to consistently be at the center of any disciplinary activity. The worker ought to consistently be offered time to give their record of episodes. Backing ought to consistently be given regardless of what the result; outrage has no spot in a disciplinary strategy. The gathering can be suspended if new proof becomes visible so the two gatherings can have the opportunity to think/examine these issues. There are three likely results of the technique; No activity taken. Formal admonition gave. Either Verbal, first composed or last admonition relying upon any past disciplinary systems. Excusal. The result of the gathering ought to consistently be given to the worker recorded as a hard copy alongside data on the intrigue procedure. Composed proof ought to consistently be taken and kept on record on the off chance that the worker ought to go to council for out of line excusal. Everything ought to be done to help the worker before a composed notice is given, for example Extra preparing/courses that would improve guidelines of work. A coach conspire whereby the representative works nearby a senior individual from staff for a brief timeframe to increase a superior comprehension of systems. 1.4 Evaluate the applicable business approaches required for the enrollment and the executives of staff in the association. To guarantee that equivalent open doors are met, the nursery ought to publicize any activity opportunities reasonably. This method ought to incorporate the job being publicized in a wide scope of spots so the data is available to all. The advert is to be discharged to all zones simultaneously and it ought to incorporate an announcement inviting all candidates that meet the base necessities and capabilities, consequently to advance that the nursery is an equivalent open doors boss. At the point when the cutoff time for the application structures to be sent in has passed. The supervisory crew should then experience the candidates and pick which they should waitlist and welcome for meet. The supervisory group need to ensure that all candidates that are welcomed for talk with meet the base prerequisites that were expressed in the advert and set out by the nursery the board. The explanations behind choice or dismissal of a candidate ought to be recorded on a scoring sheet and be kept on document for 3 months. It is best practice to send a letter to all candidates advising them on the off chance that they have been effective or not. It is valuable if the supervisory group set up a rundown of key inquiries for the meeting. This safeguards all candidates get a reasonable and equivalent open door during the meeting procedure. All answers ought to be recorded by the meeting board with the goal that all data is available when choosing who they will utilize. All staff engaged with the enrollment and choice procedure ought to be prepared fittingly, particularly in the territory of equivalent chances. Once more, all interviewees ought to be advised on the off chance that they have been fruitful or not, by a letter. It is best practice to invite the interviewee to telephone the administrator for input on how the meeting went. This energizes improvement of capabilities and aptitudes where required. The letter ought to incorporate a proper proposition for employment for the effective up-and-comer. The director should then sort out an enlistment meeting with the effective competitor. During this gathering, the director can experience the everyday running of the nursery. The new representative can be acquainted with other staff individuals. Uniform can be given if necessary. The supervisor ought to likewise give the new emplo

Cinematography Of Hitchcocks Psycho Essays - English-language Films

Cinematography Of Hitchcock's Psycho Alfred Hitchcock is fame as an ace cinematographer (and editorial manager), despite his general splendor in the specialty of film. His decision of high contrast film for 1960 was respected inside the film business as flighty since shading was maybe in any event five years the new norm. Be that as it may, this worked massively well. All things considered, regardless of the common filmgoer's despise for highly contrasting film, Psycho is famously proclaimed among film buffs as his best true to life accomplishment; to such an extent along these lines, that the man, a major name in himself, is related with the film, nearly abovehis impressive height. Envisioning it in shading, Psycho would not show up as horrendous, and possibly it would likewise not be, all in all, as brought together as it currently stands, nor critical. High contrast has a nature of painting things obviously, indicating clearly certainties about character, the enthusiastic assurance or state of mind, as in powerlessness, and other baffling, absolutely creative components. Standard among his works, Hitchcock opens the film with a floating crane shot drifting over the setting of Phoenix, Arizona. Indeed, even without the secretive, chilling soundtrack, the shot itself viewed in quiet inspires a tentative entry into peril. In a long take it clears over the cityscape to construct starting interest in the watcher, and afterward outperforms a drape brought window into the nearness of a lodging's trysting inhabitants. Right away the watcher is called into going up against his/her watchfulness concerning things we are not usually intended to see, in such thoughts as protection and great taste. How far ought to the law step into a man's reality before he is found with sensible certitude for taking part in criminal operations? This question can in any case ring a bell about Norman Bates when he's examined by Arbigast, despite the fact that it follows his murder of Marion Crane. Norman clearly developing in strain, the camera savagely watches him from a low point, bearing its point on his throat as he hotly bites what's more, swallows treats corn bits. He's recommended as a casualty in a way, notwithstanding the watcher's (likely, (in moral idealism)) routine help of the law. One can feel frustrated about him. Also, what amount do we question Norman's character as he spies Marion uncovering through the parlor divider peephole? Especially today the watcher would probably address it not exactly one watching Psycho during its first, showy discharge, what with current movies' overwashing of the faculties in gore, mechanical sex and brutality to program oblivious apathy in watchers. Perhaps it doesn't strike a chord as promptly in light of the fact that directly in the wake of seeing the profile shot of Norman covering up in the peephole light and shadows, there's a slice to the camera's - or the watcher's - voyeuristic attack on Marion's protection. This decreases Norman's culpability. Be that as it may, seeing him in the demonstration carries marvel to revealing people groups' privileged insights. Perhaps these models propose engagement of inactive brutality or wrong to such an unobtrusive force, that the ghastliness of the homicide scenes despite everything stun the present watcher. Obviously those scenes are further performed by Hitchcock's quick altering; characteristic of how wild and risky occasions happen inside a trice of time in reality. What's more, the wonder is saved by not thinking about the dynamic viciousness in any extravagance, or further screen time. Dominance of only a couple of center components in film clearly increase its experience; of every one of the, a convincing synergism for even an standard story. Movies and Cinema

The Fear of Winter Driving in the Snow

The Fear of Winter Driving in the Snow Phobias Types Print The Fear of Winter Driving in the Snow Why It Probably Isnt a Phobia By Lisa Fritscher Lisa Fritscher is a freelance writer and editor with a deep interest in phobias and other mental health topics. Learn about our editorial policy Lisa Fritscher Updated on June 28, 2018 Sean Gladwell / Getty Images More in Phobias Types Causes Symptoms and Diagnosis Treatment The fear of winter driving does not have an official phobia name, but it is an incredibly common and, most of the time, rational fear. For some people, the fear of driving in winter weather stems from a larger overall fear of driving. Others are afraid solely of winter driving conditions. A fear and a phobia of winter driving are not the same issues. If you have a phobia, you have an irrational fear, that you may or may not be aware of, that interferes with your ability to function efficiently at home or at work. You also must meet the criteria for diagnosis as outlined by the latest American Psychiatric  Association in the  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of  Mental  Disorders. Fear of Driving If you are afraid of driving in general, it only makes sense that your phobia might extend to driving in inclement weather. Snow and ice decrease visibility, increase stopping distance  and enhance the chances of being involved in an accident. Many people with driving phobias find that the more challenging a particular drive is, the more fearful they become. Winter Phobias The fear of winter driving may be related to a wide range of other winter phobias. If you are afraid of snow, cold weather, or being trapped, driving in winter may enhance your fears. Some people prefer to take public transportation or ride with friends, while those with more severe fears may refuse to get into a vehicle at all. Unfamiliarity With Winter Conditions Simply being unfamiliar with winter weather conditions can greatly increase your chances for developing a fear of driving in poor weather, even if you do not have other driving or winter-related phobias. If you suddenly move or travel from a warm-weather locale to a place known for its winter storms, the feeling may be overwhelming as you try  to deduce how and when to use snow tires or chains, calculating stopping distances, and learning to steer out of a skid is skills. Even my father, an engineer who grew up in Florida, was befuddled on a Christmas vacation. We left the hotel to discover a thick layer of ice on our car. My dad rubbed his gloved hands on the windshield, but the ice refused to budge. A man handed my father a small blue implement that we had never seen. Dad quickly realized it was an ice scraper, but he had to ask the man which end to use! Fortunately, the roads had been cleared and the temperature was rising, but we would have had little idea what to do if it was actively snowing. Managing the Fear of Winter Driving The fear of winter driving varies widely in severity and the level of impact it has on peoples lives. If your fear is less severe or based primarily on unfamiliarity with winter road conditions, educating yourself about driving methods and carefully planning your route may be enough to alleviate your concerns. More severe fears and phobias, however, may require professional assistance. Fortunately, the fear of winter driving, like all driving phobias, responds well to a variety of treatment options. If your phobia is rooted in another fear, your therapist will develop a treatment plan that addresses all of the surrounding issues as well as the winter driving concerns. With hard work and a bit of help, you can conquer your fear.

Essay on Comparative Education Project - 1269 Words

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION PRESENTATION LECTURE ENGLAND Carla Antoine History 600-1300 ï‚ § 600-1800 Beginnings ï‚ § 597 St Augustine arrived in England. ï‚ § 598 First grammar school established at Canterbury. ï‚ § 600s More grammar schools established at Dorchester, Winchester, Hexham, Malmesbury, Lichfield, Hereford and Worcester. ï‚ § 776 Alcuin established school at York. ï‚ § 1016 Canute became king of England: concerned about the education of poor boys. ï‚ § 1066 Norman invasion: French replaced English as vernacular medium for teaching Latin. ï‚ § 1096 Oxford: evidence of teaching. ï‚ § 1209 Cambridge: scholars arrived from Oxford. ï‚ § 1249 Oxford: University College established, followed by Balliol 1260, Merton 1264. History 1300-1800 ï‚ § ï‚ § 1384 Grammar school†¦show more content†¦Annotated Bibliography Edwards, N. (1936). History of Education in England Newton Edwards Review of Educational Research. History of Education And Comparative Education, 4(6), 383-387. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1167458. Newton Edwards provided a comprehensive history of education in England. The nearest approach found that is similar to Edwards’ was Adamson’s Short History of Education. He presents a brief history of the majority of phases of English education. He traced the development of the educational structure from the development of the educational structure to the legislative enactment. Other topics covered in the article are the history of elementary education, history of secondary education, higher education and sources of the history of education. Contrasting a different outcome of education is the contrasting goals of social benefit or personal benefit. 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The Argument About Persuasive Essay Social Media Topics Beneficial to the Society

The Argument About Persuasive Essay Social Media Topics Beneficial to the Society Though some say absolutely free public transportation would assist the environment and cut back traffic, others think totally free public transportation is too pricey, and the government can't afford to cover it. In every nation, social stratification indicates a group of individuals belonging to a specific classification. A social stratification is also dependent on the achievements of somebody within the community. The Hidden Gem of Persuasive Essay Social Media Topics Beneficial to the Society As tempting as it might appear to skip past the extra info and go straight to the list of persuasive essay topics, don't do it. Persuasive essay topics don't always need to be of a significant nature, you can write about things that are related in your life. It is also known as the argument essay. Whenever you wish to write an excellent essay on social networking, the chosen topic is to be the middle of your attention. The Persuasive Essay Social Media Topics Beneficial to the Society Cover Up Likewise, information obtained via the world wide web should be scrutinized as a way to determine accuracy. There is, in addition, the dilemma of understanding how much info to share and that which you ought to avoid. The page on the web is a sort of continuation of the image made by the teacher in an educational institution. When you're selecting an essay topic, it is necessary to pick one which has a lot of information and statistics to strengthen your perspective, nor exaggerate any info which you have chosen to write about. Some people would rather have face-to-face interaction with friends and nearest and dearest. Quite a few men and women post themselves applying make ups, acquiring an issue in life, for example, a funeral. Exactly like anything that can be used for both good and bad, social media also have provided the negative and positive ways for those. Social networking is regarded as an addiction and lots of people are becoming addicts each and every day. Up in Arms About Persuasive Essay Social Media Topics Beneficial to the Society? Addiction to social media has a negative effect on physical wellness. As a result of environmental damage it causes, fracking needs to be banned. One of the most significant negative impacts of social networking is causing a rapid gain in the normal weight of adolescents, which can be a significant problem later on. A few of the negatives effects are harm, inadequate performance in various activities, and sometimes even health difficulties. Want to Know More About Persuasive Essay Social Media Topics Beneficial to the Society? Thus, the skills required to compose a social media argumentative essay has to be capitalized here. There are several good persuasive essay topics to pick from. When one is requested to write about social networking, it's imperative they open their thinking to avert a limited stream of ideas. There are lots of advantages and disadvantages to companies utilizing social media as a promotion tool. Life, Death and Persuasive Essay Social Media Topics Beneficial to the Society Comment 7-News senstionanlization has produced negative effect on the folks. The topic needs to be based on trending news and issues which exist only recently. For instance, Facebook has lately launched Safety Check, an extremely beneficial tool utilized by men and women during disasters. Your essay also needs to be well arranged. Now that you understand more about the way to compose an effective thesis statement, you can commence writing your own thesis. Following are a few of the suggested sociology essay topic for those students that are unable to pick a great topic for their assignment. All scholars are requested to write down a persuasive essay in the plan of their scientific studies. Social media has gotten so predominant, that it's now available almost in every technological device. Social networking is defined as any platform that enables web-based interaction. They can lead to compulsive behavior. They is a place where people socialize on the Internet. The Key to Successful Persuasive Essay Social Media Topics Beneficial to the Society Writing the very best essay is a slice of cake if you know what it is you are doing. At precisely the same time, it's an excellent persuasive essay idea. If you wish to ease your tension of trying to find hours and hours for easy essays topic selection then you've reached at the appropriate place. The form of the short article should include 1 idea n each comprehensive paragraph. Every official has their position that is right for their function in the community. Another is the job of government officials that socially stratify their function in the society. The chief executive of the NSPCC would like to really make a difference. As a rule of thumb, the policy cannot restrict employees from using social me dia to go over the conditions and terms of their employment. The second advantage is, it's good in long distance relationship. In a relationship, there are instances when submission is needed. The manner technology is growing, it's obvious that a growing number of folks will grasp its benefits. It isn't possible to create real relationship if people don't meet face to face. Persuasive Essay Social Media Topics Beneficial to the Society Explained In addition, it may also be contingent on difference of opinion between people. The disadvantages may hurt how folks communicate with one another. Individuals are more inclined to be aggressive after they've faced prejudice in a specific situation. You will need to underline the source of the prevailing prejudice in young men and women particularly. Lots of people have tried to capture the value of social networking. Since there are lots of unique kinds of media on earth and since different individuals prefer various media as th eir source of information, the option of media and the method by which the problem of information security is presented in each media is extremely critical in making decisions in addition to shaping people's ideas and attitudes. Especially, it's important that we understand and regulate using social networking by young children. Since you can see, we have to understand and regulate using social networking by young children. The Upside to Persuasive Essay Social Media Topics Beneficial to the Society Since there are millions and millions of users on social networking, it is quite simple for a marketer to achieve their target group in social media than every other channel. Lots of new social networking sites are getting to be popular each moment. Social networking is many different websites and applications that provide people the chance to make and share images, videos and messages, which can be sent to people throughout the world. They has taken the world by storm through doz ens of websites, mobile apps, and other forms of technologies improving the way people communicate with each other. Social networking sites can help it become harder for us to decide the meaningful relationships we've got in the true Earth, and the numerous casual relationships formed through social networking. The benefits of social media have been interesting to observe and take part in for huge numbers of people around the world over the last few decades. Social networking is available to criminals together with friends. Social networking is a huge method to get in touch with people in your life.

Are Electronic Medical Records a Cure for Health Care Free Essays

Case Summary Healthcare is a major topic in the media, and how it affecting people all over the country. The government has implemented laws and policies to ensure that individuals can receive the proper medical attention, and has made healthcare affordable for American that are not able to pay out of pocket for services provided. This action by the government has caused a surplus in patients seen by healthcare providers, which in return has increase the paperwork associated with business practices. We will write a custom essay sample on Are Electronic Medical Records a Cure for Health Care? or any similar topic only for you Order Now As a result, providers are implementing systems such as Electronic Medical Records to ensure that patient records are accurate and accessible for multiple providers for proper diagnosis. Electronic Medical Records (EMR) systems are systems that provide â€Å"information about one’s life-long health condition and health care behavior which are on the basis of electric management. The records contained in the system have been constructed to take the place of paper medical records as the main information sources in medical care† (Chen, Wang, Zhang, 2010). As in any system, developers must understand how to integrate information to ensure that the system in capable function properly, and providing users with information requested by incorporating business intelligence into the implementation process. Business Intelligence (BI) enables developers to clearly state what is needed throughout the entire organization, and simplifies the implementation process during implementation deployment and administration. Implementing and integrating EMR systems is costly, but it is necessary for healthcare providers to adopt systems as this to ensure accuracy, errorless information. . ) What management, organization, and technology factors are responsible for the difficulties in building electronic medical records systems? Explain your answer As technology rapidly emerges, businesses are required to adopt new practices to maintain and streamline processes. Electronic medical records systems have surfaced to eliminate inefficiency, errors and cut enorm ous spending. Organizations must strategically implement and interact with agencies outside of its walls to integrate EMR systems into it infrastructure. Healthcare management, insurance agencies, the government and technology advances have all played a major role in the delay of the creation of a global EMR system. The Government’s involvement in the implementation of EMR system is critical. In 2009, $19 billion was granted through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 to encourage doctors and hospitals to install and use electronic health records (EHR’s) which is a fundamental component of EMR systems (MacKinnon Wasserman, 2009). Without government funding, it would be merely impossible for organizations to implement and adopt ERM systems. Expensive systems are usually frowned upon by organizations, for that reason the government must intervene to ensure improved speed and accuracy of data sharing, reporting, and planning. Healthcare providers are becoming overbooked and the paperwork is overwhelming. Adopting technology is necessary in the healthcare profession to handle daily workloads. The cost of implementing systems to fit the needs of the organization is the leading factor that causes providers to resist the integration and incorporation of EMR systems. IT developers are also high involved in the implementation of systems for hospitals and healthcare providers. Investing in the EMR system is costly, but the failure to implement EMR systems is often contributed to developers ignoring stakeholders’ needs in the hospital (Su, Fulcher, Win, Chiu, Chiu, 2008). 2. ) What stages of system building will be the most difficult when creating electronic medical record systems? Explain your answer With advances in technology, organization must continually upgrade current systems to ensure that the system’s capabilities are functional. One of the most difficult stages in the implementing of EMR system is the sharing of information between different systems. One of the essential purposes of an EMR system is to collaborate and store patient information that can be accessed by multiple providers. Utilizing what is known as an electronic patient records system or (ERP) is an electronic structure for the maintenance of information about the health condition and the care received by someone all his/her life (Vilar Boudoux, 2002) . Some institutions that implement systems using ERP could actually face problems due to HIPPA laws when making information available to other sources. Being able to provide information nationally could cause major problems for organizations utilizing as well. Providers have issues with privacy with information be easily accessible. Protection of information is vital, and developer must be able to control access and information that is provided through EMR systems. Christa Teston in her article, Investigating usability and â€Å"meaningful use† of electronic medical records, â€Å"A wide-ranging survey of healthcare providers and patients resulted in negative attitudes from a rather substantial minority of participants about the secondary use of de-identified health information† (Teston, 2012). 3. Describe the application of business process management to the design of an electronic medical record system Within an EMR system, careful database management is needed to store relative and historical information. EMR systems implementations â€Å"require a significant investment in money and time, as well as process change and training, all of which carry a great deal of risk for the organization† (MacKinnon Wasserman, 200 9). The implementation of any system requires strategic planning and proactive approaches to management, and business processes. There are design-related issues that many developers struggle with during the implementation process such as privacy, efficiency, accounting, and noise from data (Teston, 2012). EMR sharing system unified data structure enables the complete exchange of medical information within the hospital encompassed by a particular region. The organizational structure of hospitals can be directly mapped to share electronic medical record system, to simplify the management of permissions. For that purpose, developer must strategically plan to implement a strong security measure for the system. Security implementation within the EMR system requires users such as providers, staff, and manager, to all obtain a registered certificate that enables access to the system (Chen, Wang, Zhang, 2010). 4. ) Describe the importance of business intelligence and analytics capabilities in the design of an electronic medical record system Understanding technology and the needs of the users plays a vital role in implementing any system. Proactively implementing systems that is readily able to adapt to future technology upgrades requires developers to have intensive knowledge of the industry practices and technology evolvement. Business Intelligence (BI) is used to describe applications and technologies that are collaborated to provide access to analyze data and information about an enterprise, in order assist with business decisions (Wu, Barash, Bartolini, 2007). Data warehousing is one application that is used in the implementation of an EMR system, and is also considered traditional form of business intelligence. The main goal of BI is to â€Å"provide a single vision for an entire organization; to simplify system implementation, deployment, and administration; and to deliver strategic, tactical, and operational knowledge and actionable insight† (Wu, Barash, Bartolini, 2007). Reference Chen, Q. , Wang, Z. , Zhang, W. (2010). Security Design for Electronic Medical Record. Intenational Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Computer Science, (pp. 1-4). doi:10. 1109/ICBECS. 2010. 5462307 MacKinnon, W. , Wasserman, M. (2009). Implementing electronic medical record systems. 2nd Hawaii Intenational Conference on System Science (pp. 50-53). Waikoloa: IEEE Computer Society. doi:10. 1109/HICSS. 2009. 349 Su, Y. -Y. , Fulcher, J. , Win, K. T. , Chiu, H. -C. , Chiu, G. -F. (2008). Evaluating the implementation of Electronic Medical Record (EMR) Systems. IEEE 8th International Conference on Computer and Information Technology Workshops, (pp. 589-594). doi:10. 1109/CIT. 2008. Workshops. 45 Te ston, C. (2012). Investigating Usability and â€Å"Meaningful Use† of Electronic. 30th ACM international conference on Design of communication, (pp. 27-232). New York. doi:10. 1145/2379057. 2379101 Vilar, G. , Boudoux, C. (2002). The Medical Information Management System (SIGIM) – Elaboration of an Electronic Patient Record -. Proceedings of the Second Joint EMBSBMES Conference, (pp. 1954-1956). Houstin. doi:10. 1109/IEMBS. 2002. 1053112 Wu, L. , Barash, G. , Bartolini, C. (2007). A Service-oriented Architecture for Business Intelligence. IEEE International Conference on Service-Oriented Computing and Applications, (pp. 279-285). doi:10. 1109/SOCA. 2007. 6 How to cite Are Electronic Medical Records a Cure for Health Care?, Essay examples

Us - Mexico Essays - Presidency Of James K. Polk,

Us - Mexico History Spanish settlement of the west International borders have always been centers of conflict, and the U.S.-Mexican border is no exception. With the European colonizing the New World, it was a matter of time before the powers collided. The Spanish settled what is today Mexico, while the English settled what is to day the United States. When the two colonial powers did meet what is today the United States Southwest, it was not England and Spain Rather the two powers were the United States and Mexico. Both Counties had broken off from their mother countries. The conflict that erupted between the two countries where a direct result of different nation policies. The United States had a policy of westward expansion, while Mexico had a policy of self protection. The Americans never had a written policy of expansion What they had was the idea of Manifest Destiny. Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States had the right to expand westward to the Pacific ocean. On the other hand, Mexico was a new country wanting to protect itself from outside powers. Evidence of U.S. expansion is seen with the independence of Texas from Mexico. The strongest evidence of U.S. expansion goals is with the Mexican-American War. From the beginning, the war was conceived as an opportunity for land expansion. Mexico feared the United States expansion goals. During the 16th century, the Spanish began to settle the region. The Spanish had all ready conquered and settled Central Mexico. Now they wanted to expand their land holdings north. The first expedition into the region, that is today the United States Southwest, was with Corando. Corando reported a region rich in resources, soon after people started to settle the region. The driving force behind the settlement was silver in the region. The Spanish settled the region through three major corridors; central, western and eastern. The first settlements were mainly through the central corridor. The Spanish went thorough what is now the modern Mexican state of Chihuahua into the U.S. state of New Mexico. Eventually the Spanish established the city of Santa Fe in 1689. The eastern corridor was through modern day Texas and led to the establishment of San Antonio. The eastern expansion was caused by the French expansion into modern day Louisiana. The Spanish crown wanted a buffer between the French in Louisiana and central Mexico. The last corridor of expansion was in the west, through the sea, which led to the establishment of San Diego in 1769 and Los Angles in 1781. The Spanish were not the only European power to colonize the new world; French, English and the Dutch also settled North and South America. The Spanish and the French settled what is present day U.S-Mexico border region. The French settled modern day U.S. midwest, while the Spanish settled present day Mexico and U.S. southwest. As time went on, European influence in the region diminished.. The French sold there claims to the United States, in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase. Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821. Once the United States bought the Louisiana Purchase, western expansion began. This set the stage for major conflict in the region. The United States gained independence from England in 1775. After 1775, the Americans started to expand west. By the time Mexico gained independence, the United States had reached the Mexican frontier. Mexico needed to protect its northern borders. To protect the border region, Mexico needed to populate the area. Mexico continued the policy started by Spain of allowing Americans to settle Texas. The Americans had to follow Mexican law, religion and customs. The settlement of Texas played into the United States expansion plans. Eventually Mexico City closed Texas from more Americans from entering. This angered the Americans wanting to enter and Americans already living in Texas. Texas revolted from Mexico in 1833. Mexicans did live in Texas, and fought for the independence of Texas. The majority of Texans were Americans and fought for their independence. After the war the Americans intentionally or non-intentionally forced most Mexicans out of Texas. The ones that stayed faced racial tensions that continue to today. After gaining independence from Mexico, Texas wanted to join the United States immediately. The U.S. Congress voted against Texas from joining the Union. Congress was worried that annexation of Texas would anger Mexico. Mexico had never officially recognized Texas as independent. Congress was concerned that annexation would start a war with Mexico. Mexicos repose to American annexation was not the only factor in deciding against annexation. If Texas was to become a state, it would

Edgar Allen Poe essays

Edgar Allen Poe essays Edgar Allen Poe, was a very famous writer, mostly for writing dismal short stories and poems. He wrote many poems and short stories, such as the Black Cat, The Tell-Tale Heart, and The Raven, all are very famous. Edgar Allen Poe was known through many places and times, and still is, he also had his share of good times and bad times. He lost both of his wives to death and faced an alcohol problem late in his life. Also Poe was Editor of newspapers and small town writings, and many famous people congratulated him for his well-respected stories and poems. Poe was born January 19, 1809, in Boston Massachusetts. After his mother died in 1811, he was sent to his grandparents in Scotland where he was given a classical education. Later he returned to his hometown of Richmond Virginia, where he discovered his sweetheart (Sarah) Elmira Royster, and were engaged. Then he began to write poems and short stories, some were not very successful, and did not go over well, but he kept writing. Poe kept writing stories and poems until his wife Elmira died, but he eventually got over it and remarried. He began writing again, he then wrote The Cask of Amontillado. Poes writing brought him much joy. Famous people even read his writings, and some enjoyed them so much the mostly read Poes writings. Soon Poe became very sad, for his second wife had died as well. So he started drinking and became an alcoholic, and sometimes became very violent and much not like himself, and everything in Poes life began to go downhill. One of Edgar Allen Poes famous short story The Black Cat, was about a character (Poe) where he was happily married to a beautiful woman, and they had a cat with a white spot on it. They were all living happily together when Poe snapped and became very drunk. He took the cat that he loved so much, and cut the cats eye out of its socket. His wife soon found out and got very angry with...

7 British English Writing Resources

7 British English Writing Resources 7 British English Writing Resources 7 British English Writing Resources By Mark Nichol This site is intended primarily for writers of American English, though much of the information is also applicable to people who write English in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world. However, I recently received a request for recommendations about writing and editing guides that focus on British English. Here are seven authoritative volumes, all originating at either of England’s two most renowned universities, to help them. 1. Butcher’s Copy-editing: The Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Copy-editors, and Proofreaders As the title and subtitle indicate, this volume is directed more toward the editorial process than the writing stage, with guidance about production issues, including dealing with technology. 2. Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide Oxford University, which owns the rest of this list, has an equivalent book, Oxford Modern English Grammar. Both texts emphasize descriptive, not prescriptive, grammar and include some discussions of American English 3. New Hart’s Rules: The Handbook of Style for Writers and Editors The British English equivalent of The Chicago Manual of Style is the preeminent resource for resolving style issues such as hyphenation and punctuation, formatting for bibliographies, indexes, and notes, and usage (both British English and American English). 4. New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors: The Essential A–Z Guide to the Written Word This usage handbook has extended entries for many words, including proper nouns, and provides guidance about spelling, capitalization, and hyphenation and information about cultural or historical significance. 5. New Oxford Spelling Dictionary: The Writers’ and Editors’ Guide to Spelling and Word Division This companion to the volume mentioned in the previous item is a simple spelling and word-break guide. 6. New Oxford Style Manual This volume is a compilation of New Hart’s Rules and the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors 7. Oxford A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation This alphabetically organized guide discusses parts of speech and particular words, including questions of usage. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Book Reviews category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:4 Types of Gerunds and Gerund Phrases11 Writing Exercises to Inspire You and Strengthen Your WritingHow to Send Tactful Emails from a Technical Support Desk

Consultancy Management Techniques Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Consultancy Management Techniques - Essay Example Such management techniques have led to high expectation in terms of making decisions at the corporate level (JLR, 2015). JLR has invested a lot of resources in research and development.The decision to invest resources of an organization requires contemplation.Information used to make decisions in JLR can be found in the internal systems of the company. Most organizations have been increasingly been relying on MIS to collect data on their employees, suppliers, customers and other stakeholders of the business. Consequently, transactions made are recorded in the systems of the company (JLR, 2015). The data collected will then be mined and translated into meaningful information that will be used to make decisions (Laudon and Laudon, 2004). To arrive at proper decisions, the data that is accustomed to the best alternative should be credible. The issue of quality data is very imperative since managers may settle for wrong decisions. Given the authority that has been bestowed to senior managers, they cannot afford to make bad decisions. Managers make capital investment decisions that require them to be very careful before making a step. As a result, the data that is availed to them to interpret so as to make decisions must be of high quality. Data can be termed to be of high quality it meets a number of standards. It should easily be interpretable. Further, there must be free from errors, must be reported in time for decisions to be made it time are among the standards used to assess the quality of data (Laudon and Laudon, 2011). The role of Management Information System is to provide managers with valuable information that can be used to make decisions. In most cases, the information collected must be properly organized. Usually, the data have been in a raw state making it necessary for it to be so that it can be easily interpreted. The most relevant information that is

Compliance and Coding Management 1 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Compliance and Coding Management 1 - Assignment Example The current staff of the hospital includes: coders in the HIM department for coding inpatient services; a front office employee phone answering, helping the person who walks in without having an appointment, retrieving and filing the records of the health departments of hospitals; the CFO who does various jobs which includes organizing budgets, organizing accounts, evaluating operational outcomes, and making income tax returns; nursing staff; hospital charge master coordinator who is just enjoying the position and get the information of hospital through phone call while staying at home. Basis of clinical database in hospital is produced by the coded data. Several departments of the clinics and hospitals use the abstracted information that is gathered for every patient. For instance, for clinical analysis, improvement in services of the hospital as well as usage of the provided services the department of quality management uses such information daily. A database produced by gathering of financial and clinical data is called a decision support system. Such systems render important data regarding the business of hospital in both financial and clinical conditions. For instance, information could be collected in order to compare the actual money spent and the hospital service charges cost. This information is further utilized by the financial for forecasting and budgeting. Persons with insurance contracts could use this financial and clinical data to discuss contract’s payment. Therefore, the use of codes for decision support provides helpful information regarding the business of the organization in both financial and clinical. This coding process can provide help to the coders that are in the department of health information management (HIM) and enables them to do their jobs with the essential information for exact coding. In the give scenario there are only threes, therefore the manager of the HIM department

Police And The Use Of Force Shakoya

Police And The Use Of Force Shakoya There have been several issues concerning the policies that underline the use of force within the field of law enforcement. Favorable opinions, negative objections, and indecisive feelings about the use of force have varied throughout the public as well as within the criminal justice system when it comes to this policy. For a number of years, it has been extremely difficult in determining the proper definition of what is considered to be the use of force or the proper use of force, especially in regards to law enforcement. Ironically, there have been dozens of studies on police and the use of force and research concluded that there is no single accepted definition. Must police use force? Not only should the answer to this question include the circumstances surrounding the situation but it should also include the amount of force able to be used in each unique situation. This question will especially benefit a police officer when determining the amount of force that should be exerted on criminal suspects. Overall, in order for one to fully understand the various definitions of use of force, one must be able to appreciate the background, causes, and ways to reduce the use of force. The basic problem is the lack of routine, national systems for collecting data on incidents in which police use force during the normal course of duty and on the extent of excessive force. Literature Review The term, use of force, describes a right of an individual or authority to settle conflicts or prevent certain actions by applying measures to either: dissuade another party from a particular course of action, or physically intervene to stop them (Burke, 2005). The authority of the police to use force represents one of the most misunderstood powers granted to representatives of government. Use of force from a law enforcement perspective is using any means necessary to bring a volatile situation to a more manageable and/or resolved state. Adler (2007) found as leading police historians have demonstrated, early law enforcers worked in a hostile environment. Established during an era of soaring violence, when riots were commonplace and when social divisions cleaved cities into competing neighborhoods, American policemen, in Chicago and elsewhere, faced a daunting task. They were expected to maintain order, yet they lacked legitimacy and remained shackled to a partisan, often corrupt, institutional structure in which they were encouraged to use their influence and muscle for overtly political tasks, such as safeguarding their patrons and quelling labor unrest. All the while, American law enforcers battled to command respect and to control the streets. Types of Force The officer has a range of force options from which to choose. For instance, police officers are authorized to use both psychological and physical force to apprehend criminals and solve crimes. Sometimes, the mere presence of the police officer is enough control. At other times, verbal commands are needed. The compliance hold (physical force) is the next stage of control, followed by the use of non-lethal weapons such as the baton or chemical spray. Lastly, a police officer may resort to the use of deadly force, which by all means should try to be avoided unless deemed necessary (Douthit, 1975). It is widely regarded that the police in any given society have a difficult job to fulfill. Dealing with criminals and placing themselves in harms way on a day to day basis is definitely an admirable calling. Although seen as difficult, there is an underlying sentiment in the general public that the job of law enforcement officers is relatively straightforward. Police are faced with tough moral decisions daily. They are to decide when and how to act when presented with violations of the law. They are given the use of force as a means of crime prevention but often times the very usage of this force is questioned and sometimes, deemed unnecessary or excessive (Engel,1997). When the use of force exceeds that which is necessary to accomplish their lawful purpose, or when their purpose is not lawful apprehension or self-defense but, rather personal retaliation, it is defined as excessive use of force and is unethical and illegal (Pollock, 2010). The Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) in Data Collection on Police Use of Force, states that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the legal test of excessive forceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is whether the police officer reasonably believed that such force was necessary to accomplish a legitimate police purposeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ However, there are no universally accepted definitions of reasonable and necessary because the terms are subjective. A court in one jurisdiction may define reasonable or necessary differently than a court in a second jurisdiction. More to the point is an understanding of the improper use of force, which can be divided into two categories: unnecessary and excessive. The unnecessary use of force would be the application of force where there is no justification for its use, while an excessive use of force would be the application of more force than required where use of force is necessary (U.S. Dept of Justice, 2008). An excessive amount of force can range from a severe man handling during arrest that seems or is unnecessary to excessive use of non-lethal force. The use of non-lethal force can sometimes be considered excessive, when the uses of chemical spray, bean bag guns, or tasers, are over used to resolve a problem (McDonald,2003). However, since they are non-lethal they can be seen as reasonable use of force. Therefore, the amount of force a policeman uses does not solely depend on himself but his or her discretion. Adams (1995), states that defining excessive force in order to understand and control is not a simple matter. Every situation that possibly involves the use of force is unique. Situations may be similar or seem to mirror one another but no situation is the same. By situations varying from the differences in people, regions, beliefs, and backgrounds to tailor a particular definition, or create certain guidelines for the use of force is difficult. The dilemma, according to Rahtz (2 003), is the lack of a clear agreement on what constitutes legitimate use of force. The public, as well as the police, understand that in some situations, force is not only necessary and unavoidable, but is required, if serious injury, death or destruction of property is to be avoided (Buker,2007). However, police officers must learn to use force lawfully. You cannot use lethal force at will or use force when it is not permissible. The idea and ability of managing force by police officers is directly related to establishing responsibility and accountability to encourage the use of reasonable force (Ng, 2009). Some people believe police should not have the power to use force, no matter what the situation. They believe everything can be solved along peaceful terms in which no one can be injured or killed (Ng, 2009). Police are allowed to use force during the course of their daily activities. Force can be used to make arrests, maintain order, or keep the peace. The important thing is that the police officer is able to gain control of the situation. How the officer gains control is left up to his or her judgment: In other words, an officer most often attempts to take control of a confrontation by defining the situation (Alpert, Smith, 1994). Causes A major cause of overuse of force, possibly leading to police brutality is the belief that police officers are soldiers in a war on crime. The war mentality says it is okay to do certain things that would not be allowed under normal conditions. Police adopt this mentality because of citizens, whose fear of crime has reached an all-time high, and because of politicians, who publicize the notion that tough cops prevent crime (Albert, Smith, 1994). Harmon (2008), indicates Haduring an arrest, an officer might give verbal commands to a suspect to stop, to keep his hands visible, to turn around and place his hands against the wall, to submit to a pat-down, to put his hands behind his back for handcuffing, to come along to the car, to get in, to get booked at the station. Most suspects are compliant and require no more than a guiding arm, but those who refuse or resist, and occasionally those who do not, may provoke a forcible response. Subjects of police uses of force often respond with a llegations of law enforcement brutality. Sometimes these allegations are baseless, a product of misunderstanding what might justify lawful force or of false accusation (Matthew, 2006). Other times they represent a just demand for recognition and redress for damaged bodies and spirits. Clearly, when the law confronts claims under these statutes that an officer used too much force during an arrest, the central question for federal liability is what constitutes constitutionally excessive force under the Eighth Amendment; the Eighth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution enforce cruel and unusual punishment (Matthew, 2006). In our society, police are in a very precarious situation when it comes to the amount of force they can apply when dealing with a civilian suspect. Whether it be physical force, persuasion, or coercion; they must use discretion when deciding what course of action best suits the situation (Douthit, 1975). Discretion is the authority to make decisions without reference to specific rules or facts, using instead ones own judgment; allows for individualization and informality in the administration of justice (Buker, 2005). This gives the police leeway as to when force is necessary and when it is not, within certain guidelines. For instance, a policeman cannot beat up a man for robbing a store. But, if the robber battered someone in the process of the robbery the policeman could. He could do this because there was a clear threat of danger to himself or to another officer or human being. Police must take the precise course of action to fit the time, because if they are too lenient or to for ceful, even when dealing with the pettiest things, they can be chastised by superiors and the public. The force the police use should not exceed the threat of force that could be applied on them by someone else. As one can see in the many case histories the excessive use of force is very rarely punished on legal terms (Matthew, 2006). The police nearly always get exonerated from the charged placed on them, even though substantial evidence may be in the prosecutions favor. Why is this? Being that the police enforce the law, they become analogous with the law (Adams, 1995). When officers are placed in situations where excessive force can be used, they use this knowledge of past precedent to get away with their excessive aggression. The 1991 beating of California motorist Rodney King will have an impact on law enforcement for years to come. The videotape of the horrifying beating, broadcast nationwide, resulted in public outrage over police brutality. The broadcasting showed three Los Angeles police officers beating with metal batons, kicking and stomping on a seemingly defenseless African American male as their supervisor watched (Gray, 2006). Regardless of the videotape, a jury in Simi Valley concluded that the evidence was not adequate to convict these officers. Everyone seemed to believe that the police used excessive force in arresting King. This case caused a special commission to investigate whether brutality was widespread within the police department. Police departments across the country likewise reviewed their own policies on excessive force. Despite these efforts, citizen complaints about police brutality have increased since the Rodney King beating. Where an officers initial use of force is provoked and lawful, the line between a legal arrest and an unlawful deprivation of civil rights within the aggravated assault guidelines is relatively thin. The line between reasonable force and a criminal excessive force beating is thin indeed. There is no middle ground, no buffer zone. Its either reasonable or criminal. One extra baton strike, shove or control holds can make the difference between an officer doing his job and being sent to prison (Johnson, 2007). Ways to Reduce Use of Force In order to reduce the improper and excessive use of force, the law must be enforced in its totality. Police must not be able to get away with the use of excessive force on undeserving offenders. Police who commit this crime should be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law. They should be made as examples, so this crime does not happen in the future (Alpert, Smith, 1994). It is not a question of should or whether, but when and how much. Guidelines define when deadly force should be used: The use of such force is prescribed by state and federal statutes. In an effort to curb the discretionary power used by police, there is a set of written procedures (Burns, Crawford, 1998). Providing a framework for police to follow is one method employed to try and counteract individual decision making by trying to prevent officers from deviating from procedure. Another method used to control police more thoroughly is the creation of watchdog units within the department. Often times, this comes in the form of an internal affairs office. This is a department within a police department which is strictly in existence to ensure that police are acting responsibly and also to investigate any allegations against officers that may arise. The Continuum Scale is believed to be one of the most efficient sources used to ensure the appropriate amount of force is used. A use of force continuum is a standard that provides law enforcement officials security guards with guidelines as to how much force may be used against a resisting subject in a given situation. In certain ways it is similar to the military rules of engagement. It was designed as a general guide to using force in a confrontation or arrest situation and to make sure police officers use the appropriate level of force necessary in the performance of their duties (Burns, Crawford, 2009). The scale will assist officers in applying the law and departmental policy in use of force situations, documenting the use of force, and presenting testimony in a court proceeding. The purpose of these models is to clarify, both for officers and citizens, the complex subject of use of force by law officers. Implementation With pertinent criticisms of the use of force by law enforcement, there has been a development of a Police Training Model to assist with attempting to reduce the use of force by police officers. For instance, as of 1999, the COPS Office provided funding to PERF and the Reno (Nevada) Police Department to develop an alternative national model for training new officers that would incorporate community policing and problem-based learning techniques. The resulting Police Training Officer (PTO) Program addresses the traditional duties of policing in the context of specific neighborhood problems and includes several segments on the use of force. The PTO Program is an alternative to the 30-year-old San Jose Field Training Officer (FTO) Program. Many agencies are using the outlines of the PTO Program to develop their own in-house programs adapted to their particular needs (US. Dept of Justice, 2008). Methodology The literature is in general agreement that police are in a very precarious situation when it comes to the amount of force they can apply when dealing with a civilian suspect. There is no clear definition of use of force because the terms are subjective. The methodology used in this research was a qualitative approach. Many early studies utilized official report statistics to measure the outcome of the variables use of force and excessive use of force. Contacts between Police and the Public, a 1999 BJS report, estimated that less than half of 1 percent of an estimated 44 million people who had face-to-face contact with a police officer were threatened with or actually experienced force. Other studies report similar statistics. It is these few situations, however, that attract public attention. Robert K. Olsen, former Minneapolis Police Chief and Past President, Police Executive Research Forum (PERF), early in 2004 called the use of force the single most volatile issue facing police departments. He noted that just one use of force incident can dramatically alter the stability of a police department and its relationship with a community (U. S. Dept of Justice, 2008). Also, according to International Association of Chiefs of Police (2001), one of the most publicly debated aspects of police use of excessive force during the last year, is the racial characteristic of participants in use of force encounters. There were 8,148 reported incidents of police use of force in which the contributors (police departments) included racial descriptions for officers and suspects. Of this total, 39% involved white officers using force on white subjects, 44% involved white officers using force on African American subjects, 7% involved African American officers using force on African American subjects and 3.4% involved African American officers using force on white subjects. Overall, police department policies can have a significant impact on how force is used in street-level encounters, says a 2003 study by the Community Relations Services of the U.S. Department of Justice, Principles of Good Policing: Avoiding Violence Between Police and Citizens. The BJS Data Collection statistics reported, stresses the need for police executives to improve training of recruits and police officers on the use of force and the techniques for minimizing its application. It also so stresses the need to reduce the negative perception of police officers and the use of force within the publics opinion (U.S. Dept of Justice, 2008). Limitations Several key points could have been operationalized differently. For instance, every day, law enforcement officers face danger while carrying out their responsibilities. When dealing with a dangerous or unpredictable situation, police officers usually have very little time to assess it and determine the proper response. It is evident that the proper training as well as other guidelines can enable the officer to react properly to the threat or possible threat and respond with the appropriate tactics to address the situation, possibly including some level of force, if necessary, given the circumstances (U.S. Dept of Justice, 2008). The need for improved data collection systems can also be justified by considering the legal liabilities that law enforcement agencies have with their use of force, from both lethal and less-than-lethal weapons. The research conducted over the last 30 years on police use of force consistently calls for improved data collection at the local and national level. Conclusion In short, the purpose of this study was to determine the meaning of use of force, who can use force when and how much. The term of use of force describes a right of an individual or authority to settle conflicts or prevent certain actions by applying measures to either: dissuade another party from a particular course of action, or physically intervene to stop them (Buker, 2005). A major cause for police use of force is the belief that police officers are solders in a war on crime. The continuum scale is one of the most effective sources use to ensure the appropriate amount of force is being used. All in all, one may view the use of force as a glass half empty, and some view the glass half full, which simply states it all depends on how you look at the situation. Works Cited Adams, K. (1995). Measuring the prevalence of police abuse of force. In W.A. Geller and H. Toch (Eds.), And Justice for All: Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse of Force. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum. Adler, J. (2007). Shoot to Kill: The Use of Deadly Force by the Chicago Police, 1875-1920. Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 38(2), 233-254. Retrieved August 26, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database. Alpert, S. (1994). How Reasonable is the Resonable Man. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology . Buker, H. (2005). Understanding Police Use of Force / Understanding Police Use of Force: Officers, Suspects and Reciprocity / Into the Killing Zone: A Cops Eye View of Deadly Force. International Journal of Police Science Management, 7(3), 208-217. Retrieved August 24, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database Douthit, N. (2003). Enforcement and non-enforcement roles in policing. Journal of Police Science and Administratin , 339. Engel, R. (2008). Revisiting Critical Issues in Police Use of Force. Criminology and Public Policy , 557-561. Gray, M. (2006, October). The L.A. Riots:15 years after Rodney King. Time . International Association of Chiefs of Police. (2001). Police Use Of Force In America. Retrieved July 6, 2005, from www.theiacp.org/documents/pdts/publication/Pol. Matthew, A. (2006). Understanding Police Use of Force:Officers Suspects and Reciprocity. Comteporary Sociology , 69-71. McDonald, J. (2003). Police Use of Force: Examining the Relationship between Calls for Service and the Balance of Police Force and Suspect Resistance. Journal of Criminal Justice , 119-127. Ng, N. (2009). Rules for the Use of Force. International Peace Operations , 39-42. Rahtz, H. (2003) Understanding Police Use of Force. Criminal Justice Press: New York

Pengajaran berbantukan ICT melalui penerokaan

PENDAHULUAN1.1 PENGENALANMalaysia berusaha menerapkan Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi ( ICT ) dalam pelbagai bidang seperti perniagaan, industri, komunikasi dan pendidikan untuk mengembang dan mengekalkan kemajuan negara ke arah sains dan teknologi berlandaskan Wawasan 2020. Pada tahun 2001, kerajaan telah mewartakan k-Ekonomi Master Plan. Ekoran itu, hasrat k-Ekonomi Master Plan dimanifestasikan dalam bentuk reformasi sistem pendidikan Malaysia dan lahirnya pelbagai usaha untuk meningkatkan penggunaan ICT seperti media elektronik berbentuk e-book dan e-Learning untuk menggantikan media pengajaran dan pembelajaran ( P & A ; P ) yang konvensional ( Chan, 2002 ) . Pengajaran berbantukan ICT melalui penerokaan sumber digital boleh membantu meningkatkan minat pelajar serta menjadikan proses P & A ; P lebih berkesan. Bagi menghadapi cabaran baru kesan daripada globalisasi, liberasi, pengantarabangsaan dan perkembangan ICT pada abad ke-21, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia ( KPM ) menyediakan Pelan Induk Pembangunan Pendidikan ( PIPP ) 2006-2010 yang dapat melahirkan warganegara yang berilmu pengetahuan, celik ICT, berkemahiran dan berakhlak mulia. Matlamat pelan tersebut adalah untuk merapatkan jurang digital dengan menyediakan kemudahan ICT antara lokasi dan meningkatkan kemahiran ICT dalam kalangan guru dan pelajar ( PIPP 2006-2010, 2006 ) . Walaupun pelbagai usaha telah dilaksanakan untuk meningkatkan pengintegrasian ICT dalam P & A ; P, namun isu sejauhmana proses pendifusian memberi kesan kepada penerimaan dan pengintegrasian ICT masih dipersoalkan. Kesannya matlamat penggunaan ICT sebagai alat bantuan P & A ; P untuk membolehkan penyampaian sesuatu konsep dengan berkesan dan memudahkan pemahaman Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence pengajaran oleh pelajar tidak tercapai. Oleh itu, disertasi ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti dan mengkaji hubungan faktor-faktor yang perlu diberi penekanan semasa mendifusikan sesuatu inovasi ICT dengan penerimaan guru untuk mengintegrasikan inovasi ICT tersebut dalam P & A ; P.1.2 LATAR BELAKANG KAJIANPendifusian inovasi adalah teori tentang bagaimana sesuatu thought atau objek baru tersebar dapat diterima oleh individu yang disasarkan ( Rogers, 2003 ) . Teori ini diasaskan oleh Everett Rogers pada tahun 1964 melalui bukunya yang berjudul ‘Diffusion of Innovations ‘ . Konsep difusi didefinisikan sebagai satu proses yang menerangkan bagaimana sesuatu inovasi dikomunikasikan melalui pelbagai saluran media pada jangka Masa tertentu dalam sesebuah sistem sosial. Manakala inovasi pula didefinisikan sebagai sesuatu objek, amalan atau thought yang baru dan dicipta untuk mewujudkan keselesaan, kos efektif dan lebih berkesan ( Rogers, 2003 ) . Teori Pendifusian Inovasi Rogers menjelaskan terdapat beberapa faktor yang menentukan penerimaan sesuatu inovasi. Penerimaan seseorang individu terhadap inovasi yang diperkenalkan adalah tidak sama dan boleh dipengaruhi oleh ciri-ciri peribadi serta latar belakang individu itu sendiri ( Surry & A ; Ely, 2002 ) . Penubuhan Koridor Raya Multimedia ( MSC ) pada tahun 1996 dengan memberi penekanan kepada tujuh aplikasi utama iaitu kerajaan elektronik, tele-perubatan, sekolah bestari, kad pintar, pemasaran tanpa sempadan, kelompok penyelidikan dan pembangunan jaringan perusahaan sedunia merupakan sebahagian usaha kerajaan untuk mengukuhkan lagi penggunaan ICT di Malaysia. Pada tahun 1999, kerajaan telah melancarkan plan Sekolah Bestari dengan melibatkan 88 buah sekolah dan plan ini merupakan projek yang menjadi kesinambungan daripada penubuhan MSC. Seterusnya, pada tahun 2003 kerajaan telah melaksanakan plan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Sains dan Matematik dalam Bahasa Inggeris ( PPSMI ) bermula dengan Tahun 1, Tingkatan 1 dan Tingkatan 6 Rendah di seluruh negara. Beberapa strategi pelaksanaan PPSMI ialah menyediakan guru dengan latihan intensif Indonesian Inggeris, Kursus Orientasi Kurikulum, peralatan teknologi maklumat, latihan penggunaan ICT dan bahan perisian. Usaha yang diambil dalam pelaksananan plan PPSMI ialah menggalakkan guru untuk menggunakan bahan pengajaran yang menggabungkan elemen multimedia seperti sound, picture, grafik, teks dan animasi. Elemen-elemen multimedia ini dipercayai dapat membawa perubahan dalam cara pengajaran guru dalam bilik darjah dan menjadikan proses P & A ; P mata pelajaran Sains, Matematik dan Bahasa Inggeris lebih menarik dan berkesan ( Noor Azliza & A ; Lilia, 2002 ) . Oleh itu, penggunaan Multimedia dalam pendidikan merupakan satu keperluan dalam epoch teknologi maklumat dan komunikasi. Teknologi Multimedia dianggap sebagai edutainment ( education amusement ) dan Infotainment ( Information amusement ) ( Handwerker, 2001 ) . Multimedia merupakan rangsangan kepada perubahan dalam proses pengajaran berbanding dengan kaedah pengajaran konvensional ( Gayle & A ; Uma, 1996 ) . Di Malaysia, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia telah mula sedar Akan kepentingan penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif ke atas persekitaran pembelajaran dalam bilik darjah. Pengajaran dengan berbantukan perisian kursus boleh berubah menjadi panduan atau wise man dengan maklum balas secara interaktif daripada hanya berfungsi sebagai pembekal maklumat asas dan pemahaman sahaja ( Lee, Cheung, & A ; Chen, 2005 ) . Dengan adanya teknologi multimedia kemungkinan akan wujud sekolah Mayan dan sekolah planetary bagi aplikasi jarak jauh ( Saade & A ; Bahli, 2005 ) . Mata pelajaran Matematik merupakan mata pelajaran yang wajib dipelajari oleh semua pelajar sekolah menengah. Matematik mengandungi topik-topik yang sukar difahami oleh pelajar kerana perkara yang ingin disampaikan adalah berbentuk abstrak. Perkaitan antara satu konsep dengan konsep yang lain menimbulkan kekeliruan dan menyebabkan pelajar sukar memahami konsep yang baru dan berbeza-beza dalam Matematik. Dalam keadaan ini, pendekatan pengajaran konvensional tidak dapat menarik minat dan merangsang proses pembelajaran. Kesannya pencapaian pelajar dalam mata pelajaran Matematik terjejas ( Mohd Salahuddin, 2006 ) . Menurut Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum ( PPK ) ( 2000 ) , penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif boleh membantu pelajar untuk menvisualisasi konsep Matematik yang abstrak dengan lebih berkesan. Selain itu, penggunaan perisian juga dapat membantu murid memodelkan masalah yang mereka terokai dengan lebih berkesan. Menurut Mohd Nizar ( 2007 ) , penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam pengajaran Matematik dapat menggalakkan penglibatan aktif pelajar dalam P & A ; P seterusnya meningkatkan prestasi pencapaian akademik mereka.1.3 PENYATAAN MASALAHKajian tentang pendifusian dan penerimaan inovasi telah dijalankan secara meluas dalam pelbagai bidang. Contohnya dalam bidang ekonomi ( Mukoyama, 2005 ) ; rangkaian sosial ( Alkemade & A ; Castaldi, 2005 ) ; imigran ( Kabbar & A ; Crump, 2006 ) ; perubatan ( Huskey, 2009 & A ; Kilmon & A ; Fagan, 2007 ) dan pendidikan ( Ismail & A ; Ann, 2006 ; Ndubisi, 2004 & A ; Richardson, 2007 ) . Kajian-kajian tentang pendifusian ini t elah menumpukan bagaimana sesuatu inovasi disebar dan diterima oleh pengguna, faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi penerimaan inovasi serta halangan-halangan yang dihadapi dalam pendifusian sesuatu inovasi. Justeru, kajian-kajian ini juga menjelaskan tentang kepentingan proses pendifusian dalam memastikan kejayaan atau kegagalan sesuatu inovasi. Inovasi ICT merupakan suatu inovasi yang membolehkan guru dan pelajar mengakses pelbagai maklumat tanpa batasan Masa dan tempat. Namun demikian, sebagaimana inovasi-inovasi lain adenosine deaminase kemungkinan inovasi ICT juga Akan diterima atau ditolak. Oleh itu, kejayaan pelaksanaan inovasi ICT banyak bergantung kepada keberkesanan proses pendifusian serta penerimaannya dalam P & A ; P. Pihak Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia menganggap ICT sebagai suatu alat yang dapat merevolusikan pembelajaran, memperkayakan kurikulum, memperkembangkan pedagogi dan meningkatkan penguasaan pelajar. Bagi memantapkan ICT dalam pendidikan, KPM telah membelanjakan RM580 juta untuk menyediakan pelbagai bahan teknologi untuk digunakan dalam P & A ; P, memberikan latihan kepada guru dan menyediakan kemudahan. Keputusan untuk menggunakan ICT dipengaruhi oleh pelbagai faktor seperti pengetahuan dan kemahiran guru, kemudahan dan kekangan di sekolah. Bagi tujuan membantu menyepadukan ICT dalam P & A ; P, guru-guru dibekalkan dengan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. KPM berharap penerimaan dan pengintegrasian perisian kursus yang berasaskan multimedia interaktif dapat membawa perubahan yang besar terutama daripada aspek kaedah pengajaran guru dan cara belajar pelajar ( KPM, 2001 ) . Perisian kursus multimedia interaktif mempunyai potensi untuk meningkatkan mutu P & A ; P di samping menyediakan capaian kepada maklumat dan menggalakkan interaksi antara pelajar melalui pelbagai aktiviti ( Roblyer & A ; Edwards, 2000 ) . Perisian kursus multimedia interaktif juga membolehkan parity pelajar memperoleh ilmu dan kemahiran-kemahiran menerusi pembelajaran kendiri. Kajian oleh Mohd Nizar ( 2007 ) dan Azizah ( 2006 ) menunjukkan bahawa perisian kursus multimedia interaktif berjaya meningkatkan pencapaian pelajar dan meningkatkan motivasi mereka terhadap mata pelajaran yang dipelajari. Penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif menjadikan mata pelajaran Matematik lebih menarik dengan adanya pelbagai teknik pengajaran dan elemen-elemen multimedia. Penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam mata pelajaran Matematik dapat melatih kemahiran penyelesaian masalah atau menjadi alternatif kepada pengajaran sesuatu topik yang sukar dikuasai oleh pelajar menerusi ka edah pengajaran yang sedia adenosine deaminase ( Ibrahim, Baharuddin & A ; Jamalludin, 2005 & A ; Nor Azan, Halimah & A ; Shahrul Azman, 2009 ) Walaupun pelbagai usaha telah dilakukan untuk memperkenalkan dan menggalakkan penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P, namun timbul persoalan sama adenosine deaminase guru bersedia untuk menerima dan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif seperti yang diharapkan. Ini adalah kerana penerimaan dan penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P didapati masih berada pada tahap yang rendah ( Fong, 2006 ; Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, 2006 ) . Ini disokong dengan dapatan kajian oleh Azizah ( 2006 ) yang mendapati penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru di Malaysia masih pada tahap yang rendah. Dapatan kajian ini, menunjukkan bahawa guru hanya menerima dan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif sebagai sumber sokongan dalam P & A ; P. Kemampuan inovasi teknologi tersebut tidak digunakan sepenuhnya oleh guru ( Moersch, 1995 ) . Justeru, ini menggambarkan proses pendifusian inovasi perisian kursus m ultimedia interaktif adalah kurang berkesan. Oleh yang demikian, kajian ini adalah sangat perlu untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor pendifusian yang menjadi penyumbang kepada peningkatan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru. Menurut Sanders dan Morrison ( 2001 ) , terdapat tiga sebab yang memerlukan kajian tentang proses pendifusian dalam bidang teknologi pendidikan. Sebab pertama ialah kebanyakan ahli teknologi pendidikan kurang pengetahuan tentang mengapa produk mereka diterima atau sebaliknya. Drum sanders dan Morrison ( 2001 ) percaya bahawa kajian tentang pendifusian dapat membantu ahli teknologi pendidikan untuk memahami punca berlakunya keadaan tersebut. Manakala sebab yang kedua ialah bidang teknologi pendidikan tidak dapat dipisahkan dengan inovasi dan ahli teknologi pendidikan perlu mempunyai pengetahuan tentang proses pendifusian dan theoretical account pendifusian inovasi. Dengan itu, ahli teknologi pendidikan akan menjadi lebih bersedia untuk menghadapi penerima sesuatu inovasi. Akhir sekali, sebab yang ketiga ialah kajian tentang pendifusian dapat membantu untuk membina theoretical account pendifusian yang lebih sistematik. Surry dan Ely ( 2002 ) mendapati sikap pereka yang hanya menumpukan kepada pembangunan bahan teknologi yang menjadi punca kepada kurangnya penggunaan sesuatu teknologi dalam kalangan guru. Keadaan ini menyebabkan tidak adenosine deaminase jaminan untuk mendifusikan teknologi. Menurut Rogers ( 2003 ) , proses pendifusian adalah satu proses yang rumit dan dipengaruhi oleh banyak faktor. Kelebihan teknologi itu sendiri hanya merupakan satu faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan seseorang guru untuk menerima dan menggunakan sesuatu inovasi. Ciri-ciri seperti interaksi sosial yang kompleks dan faedah penggunaan juga mempengaruhi penerimaan sesuatu teknologi dan penggunaannya ( Rogers, 2003 ) . Dalam hal ini, Teori Pendifusian Inovasi boleh diaplikasikan untuk mencari penyelesaian kepada masalah kurangnya penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam proses P & A ; P. Kepercayaan guru terhadap kemampuan sesuatu kaedah atau bahan akan mempengaruhi keputusan guru untuk menerima dan mengaplikasikan kaedah atau bahan tersebut dalam P & A ; P ( Pajares, 2002 ) . Di samping itu, sikap bimbang dan kurang keyakinan terhadap diri sendiri untuk menguasai sesuatu teknologi juga akan menyebabkan guru kurang berminat untuk menerima sesuatu inovasi ICT. Justeru, pengalaman guru yang negatif semasa menggunakan teknologi mendorong guru untuk tidak menerima inovasi ICT yang baru ( Mohd Nizar, 2007 ) . Di samping itu, kekurangan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif yang berkualiti dan kesukaran mengendalikan perisian kursus juga menyebabkan guru menganggap bahawa penggunaan inovasi ICT dalam pengajaran pembelajaran tidak berkesan ( Sima, Jayakaran & A ; Roselan, 2009 ) . Seterusnya guru di sekolah menghadapi masalah kekurangan masa untuk mereka bentuk pelajaran yang melibatkan penggunaan inovasi ICT. Guru juga menghadapi masalah kekurangan sokongan dari segi sokon gan pihak pengurusan dan sokongan peralatan ICT untuk menerima dan mengintegrasikan inovasi ICT seperti yang disasarkan ( Mohammad, Jamalul Lail & A ; Mohd Izham. 2001 ) . Dalam konteks pendidikan di Malaysia, hanya terdapat beberapa kajian yang dijalankan tentang pendifusian dan penerimaan inovasi. Antaranya ialah kajian oleh Nor Aziah dan Ahmad Marzuki ( 2004 ) yang telah mengkaji tentang pendifusian dan penerimaan Sistem Pengurusan Pembelajaran dalam meningkatkan kualiti P & A ; P. Mereka mengkaji proses pendifusian Dari perspektif penerima dengan menggunakan variabel tingkah laku positif dan sikap terbuka guru untuk menerima inovasi tersebut. Kajian oleh Azwan, Abdul Ghani, Mohammad Zohir dan Abd. Rahman ( 2005 ) juga telah menggunakan perspektif penerima untuk mengkaji kesan efikasi kendiri guru Sejarah terhadap Pengajaran Berbantukan Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi ( ICT ) sekolah menengah kebangsaan harian di negeri Perlis Indera Kayangan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat hubungan antara efikasi kendiri dengan amalan pengajaran berbantukan ICT. Sima, Jayakaran dan Roselan ( 2009 ) pula telah mengkaji pendifusian dan pengintegrasian Pengajaran Berasaskan Web ( WBI ) dalam kalangan staf Fakulti Bahasa Inggeris di Universiti Putra Malaysia Dari perspektif inovasi. Pendifusian Pengajaran Berasaskan Web dikaji Dari aspek kelebihan relatif, kesesuaian, kesenangan mengguna, mudah untuk percubaan, visibleness dan consequence provability. Rodney, Michael dan Christina ( 2009 ) juga telah menggunakan perspektif inovasi dalam kajian mereka. Mereka telah mengkaji penerimaan inovasi perbincangan dalam talian dalam kalangan pensyarah Universiti Swinburne Kampus Sarawak dengan menggunakan Technology Acceptance Model ( 1986 ) . Selain itu, terdapat juga kajian-kajian yang menggunakan dua perspektif untuk mengkaji pendifusian dan penerimaan inovasi teknologi. Contohnya, Mohd. Sarif ( 1998 ) yang telah mengkaji tentang faktor-faktor yang menjadi penghalang kepada pendifusian teknologi pendidikan dalam kalangan guru Sekolah Menengah Sains di pantai Tamerlane Semenanjung Malaysia. Kajian ini telah menggabungkan variabel-variabel Dari perspektif penerima dan perspektif persekitaran iaitu individu, birokratik, ekonomi dan logistik. Manakala Azizah ( 2006 ) pula telah menggabungkan perspektif inovasi dan perspektif persekitaran dalam kajiannya. Azizah telah mengkaji tahap penerimaan dan penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif Sekolah Bestari dalam kalangan guru dan pelajar sekolah di Malaysia serta halangan-halangan yang dihadapi dalam penerimaan inovasi tersebut. Ini menunjukkan dalam kajian-kajian Lepas parity penyelidik hanya menumpukan kepada faktor-faktor daripada perpektif tertentu sahaja, sama adenosine deaminase Dari perspektif penerima, inovasi atau persekitaran. Tetapi kajian ini akan menggabungkan ketiga-tiga perspektif tersebut. Walaupun terdapat banyak faktor yang boleh mempengaruhi penerimaan sesuatu inovasi, tetapi dalam kajian ini enam faktor yang menjadi dominan dalam ketiga-tiga perspektif tersebut dipilih dan dinamakan sebagai faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman dan efikasi kendiri Dari perspektif penerima, kelebihan relatif dan kerumitan Dari perspektif inovasi, dan sokongan dan Masa Dari perspektif persekitaran ) . Pemilihan faktor-faktor pendifusian adalah berdasarkan kepada empat teori iaitu Teori Pendifusian Rogers ( 2003 ) , Technology Acceptance Model ( 1986 ) , Theory of Reasoned Action ( 1975 ) dan Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 ) . Teori-teori tersebut digabungkan dan digunakan sebagai asas dalam kajian ini untuk mengkaji hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru Matematik yang mengajar Tingkatan 1 di Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan harian di negeri Kedah. Selain itu, kajian ini juga mengkaji sumbangan variabel-variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah sebagai moderator hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.4 OBJEKTIF KAJIANObjektif kajian ini secara umumnya adalah untuk meninjau hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan guru Matematik terhadap perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Secara khususnya kajian ini ber tujuan untuk: 1. mengenal pasti hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. 2. mengkaji perbezaan terhadap penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif antara variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah. 3. mengenal pasti faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) yang menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. 4. menentukan sama adenosine deaminase variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.5 PERSOALAN KAJIANBerdasarkan objektif kajian di atas, soalan-soalan kajian berikut dibentuk: 1. adakah terdapat hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif? 2. adakah terdapat perbezaan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif antara variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah? 3. apakah faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) yang menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif? 4. adakah variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif?1.6 HIPOTESIS KAJIANBerdasarkan objektif kajian, beberapa hipotesis telah dibentuk bagi menjawab persoalan kajian. Ho1 Tidak terdapat hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1a: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor pengalaman dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1b: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor kendiri dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1c: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor kelebihan relatif dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1d: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang negatif antara faktor kerumitan dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1e: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor sokongan dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1f: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor Masa dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho2 Tidak terdapat perbezaan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif antara variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah. Ho2a: Tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan antara jantina dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho2b: Tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan antara umur dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho2c: Tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan antara pengalaman mengajar dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho2d: Tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan antara lokasi sekolah dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3 Faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3a: Faktor pengalaman tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3b: Faktor efikasi kendiri tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3c: Faktor kelebihan relatif tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3d: Faktor kerumitan tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3e: Faktor sokongan tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3f: Faktor Masa tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho4 Variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah tidak menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho4a: Variabel jantina tidak menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho4b: Variabel umur tidak menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho4c: Variabel pengalaman mengajar tidak menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho4d: Variabel lokasi sekolah tidak menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.7 KERANGKA TEORI KAJIANRajah 1.1 Kerangka Teori kajianRajah 1.1 menunjukkan kerangka teori kajian yang menggabungkan Teori Pendifusian Rogers ( 2003 ) , Technology Acceptance Model ( TAM ) ( 1986 ) , Model Theory of Reasoned Action ( TRA ) ( 1975 ) dan Model Theory of Planned Behavior ( TPB ) ( 1986 ) . Berdasarkan teori pendifusian Rogers, penerimaan sesuatu inovasi dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor daripada perspektif penerima, perspektif inovasi dan perspektif persekitaran. Kerangka teori menjelaskan bahawa niat untuk melakukan sesuatu tindakan dan persepsi kawalan kelakuan ( Model TRA dan TPB ) akan mempengaruhi keputusan sesorang individu untuk menerima sesuatu inovasi. Dalam konteks kajian ini, niat kelakuan dan persepsi kawalan kelakuan diwakili oleh faktor pengalaman guru dan faktor efikasi kendiri guru untuk mengkaji hubungan faktor -faktor tersebut terhadap penerimaan inovasi perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Model TAM pula menjelaskan bahawa kesenangan mengguna dan persepsi kebergunaan yang ada pada sesuatu inovasi akan menjadi penentu kepada penerimaan inovasi tersebut dalam komuniti penerima. Dengan itu, faktor kelebihan relatif dan kerumitan dipilih untuk mewakili perspektif inovasi dalam mengkaji hubungan antara faktor kelebihan relatif dan kerumitan dengan penerimaan inovasi perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Di samping faktor-faktor daripada perspektif penerima dan perspektif inovasi, Rogers ( 2003 ) menjelaskan bahawa penerimaan sesuatu inovasi juga dipengaruhi oleh sokongan persekitaran di mana inovasi tersebu disebarkan. Sokongan persekitaran dapat dilihat dari aspek sokongan pihak pengurusan, sokongan kemudahan dan sokongan teknikal di samping keperluan Masa untuk membolehkan guru menerima sesuatu inovasi dan mengintegrasikannya dalam P & A ; P. Dalam konteks kajian ini, perspektif persekitaran diwakili oleh faktor-faktor sokongan dan Masa untuk mengkaji hubungan perspektif persekitaran dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.8 KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL KAJIANVariabel Bebas Variabel BersandarVariabel ModeratorRajah 1.2: Hubungan antara Faktor Pendifusian dengan PenerimaanPerisian Kursus Multimedia InteraktifRajah 1.2 menunjukkan kerangka konseptual kajian yang dibina berasaskan kepada Teori Pendifusian oleh Rogers ( 2003 ) , Technology Acceptance Model ( 1989 ) , Model Th eory of Reasoned Action ( 1975 ) dan Model Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 ) . Pemilihan faktor-faktor pengalaman dan efikasi kendiri yang mewakili perpektif penerima adalah berdasarkan kepada Model Theory of Reasoned Action dan Model Theory of Planned Behavior. Model-model ini menjelaskan bahawa pengalaman guru dan efikasi kendiri merupakan faktor-faktor penting yang menyumbang kepada penerimaan sesuatu inovasi. Penerimaan inovasi bergantung kepada individu itu sendiri untuk membuat keputusan sama adenosine deaminase untuk menerima atau menolak sesuatu inovasi. Manakala faktor-faktor kerumitan dan kelebihan relatif dipilih berdasarkan Technology Acceptance Model. Kedua-dua faktor ini dikatakan mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat ke atas penerimaan sesuatu inovasi yang berasaskan teknologi. Model ini menekankan bahawa tahap penerimaan sesuatu inovasi adalah bergantung sepenuhnya kepada ciri-ciri inovasi itu sendiri. Faktor-faktor bagi perspektif persekitaran pula dipilih berdasarkan Model Pendifusian oleh Rogers. Model Pendifusian menjelaskan bahawa persepsi dan sokongan persekitaran dari segi sokongan dan Masa amat mempengaruhi pendifusian sesuatu inovasi. Guru di sekolah memerlukan sokongan pentadbiran dan teknikal serta Masa yang secukupnya untuk menggunakan sesuatu inovasi. Berdasarkan tinjauan literatur di samping faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; Masa ) , variabel-variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah juga mempengaruhi penerimaan sesuatu inovasi teknologi. Variabel-variabel tersebut dijadikan sebagai variabel moderator dalam kajian ini kerana menjadi penyederhana antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.9 SKOP KAJIANKajian ini dijalankan di 30 buah Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan ( SMK ) harian bandar dan 30 buah SMK harian luar bandar di negeri Kedah Darul Aman. Di negeri Kedah terdapat 144 buah SMK harian yang meliputi 11 buah daerah pentadbiran iaitu Kota Setar, Kuala Muda, Kulim, Kubang Pasu, Langkawi, Padang Terap, Sik, Baling, Yan, Pendang dan Bandar Baharu. Pembangunan pendidikan di Negeri Kedah adalah berlandaskan polisi pendidikan peringkat kebangsaan yang memberi penekanan kepada kecemerlangan ak demik dan peningkatan golongan profesional dalam pelbagai bidang. Bagi memenuhi keperluan pendidikan di negeri Kedah, kerajaan telah membina sekolah rendah dan sekolah menengah di bandar dan luar bandar. Selain itu, di negeri Kedah juga terdapat beberapa institusi pengajian tinggi awam iaitu Universiti Utara Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Universiti Islam INSANIAH dan Kolej Universiti Pertanian. Rasional pemilihan mata pelajaran Matematik dalam kajian ini adalah kerana Matematik merupakan mata pelajaran yang melibatkan konsep-konsep yang abstrak. Perkara ini menyebabkan parity pelajar menghadapi masalah dalam membina perkaitan antara satu konsep dengan konsep yang lain. Kajian oleh Siaw ( 2008 ) mendapati pencapaian pelajar yang mengikuti pengajaran Matematik secara konvensional iaitu ‘chalk and talk ‘ adalah lebih rendah berbanding pencapaian pelajar yang belajar dengan berbantukan teknologi. Justeru, pengajaran konvensional hanya menekankan kepada konsep hafalan terhadap fakta-fakta yang diberikan oleh guru tanpa memahami perkaitan antara satu konsep dengan satu konsep. Ini menyebabkan pelajar tidak dapat memahami konsep Matematik dengan jelas dan memperoleh pencapaian yang rendah. Pengintegrasian ICT di sekolah menyebabkan pelbagai peralatan teknologi dan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dibekalkan kepada guru Matematik untuk memudahkan pengajaran dalam Indonesian Inggeris dan meningkatkan pemahaman pelajar dalam Matematik. Di samping itu, pendekatan pengajaran juga berubah daripada pendekatan konvensional kepada pendekatan berbantukan teknologi. Penggunaan teknologi dalam P & A ; P membantu parity pelajar membina konsep abstrak dengan ocular yang konkrit. Rasional pemilihan guru Matematik yang mengajar Tingkatan 1 sebagai sampel kajian adalah berdasarkan pada pelaksanaan awal PPSMI di peringkat Darjah 1, Tingkatan 1 dan Tingkatan 6 Rendah. Memandangkan plan ini telah dilaksanakan sejak tahun 2003, guru tersebut merupakan kumpulan perintis pertama yang telah menjalani P & A ; P Matematik menggunakan Bahasa Inggeris. Mereka telah mempunyai pengalaman mengajar dengan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Pelajar-pelajar yang memasuki Tingkatan 1 juga telah mempunyai pengalaman belajar dengan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif semasa berada di sekolah rendah. Hal ini memudahkan guru untuk mengajar Matematik dengan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.10 KEPENTINGAN KAJIANTujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian seperti pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan dan Masa dalam mempengaruhi penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif d alam P & A ; P. Walaupun terdapat banyak faktor yang mempengaruhi penerimaan sesuatu inovasi, tetapi terdapat enam faktor yang dominan dalam tiga perspektif iaitu penerima, inovasi dan persekitaran dipilih untuk melihat hubungan faktor-faktor tersebut dalam menjamin keberkesanan pendifusian dan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Di samping itu, dapatan kajian ini dapat membantu untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang perlu diberi penekanan dalam pendifusian dan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru. Hasil kajian ini boleh membantu individu yang terlibat dalam mereka bentuk perisian kursus multimedia interaktif untuk P & A ; P. Pereka bentuk perisian kursus dapat mengetahui reka bentuk plan pendidikan yang diharapkan oleh guru dan pelajar. Dengan itu, mereka akan menitikberatkan ciri-ciri pengguna sasaran semasa mereka bentuk produk pendidikan. Dalam konteks kajian ini, perisian kursus multimedia interaktif yang dihasilkan perlu memenuhi keperluan pendidikan dan harus mengambil kira tentang kepelbagaian kebolehan murid dan guru. Penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif perlu sesuai dalam pelbagai persekitaran pembelajaran ( Eliane, 2001 ) . Perisian kursus multimedia interaktif juga perlu mempunyai reka bentuk antaramuka yang baik serta dihasilkan secara profesional supaya dapat digunakan dalam pelbagai gaya P & A ; P. Selain itu, dapatan kajian ini Akan membantu pereka bentuk produk untuk merancang latihan dan pembangunan staf serta mencari penyelesaian kepada pendifusia n sesuatu inovasi yang akan dibangunkan.1.11 LIMITASI KAJIANPenerimaan dan penggunaan teknologi pendidikan hanya berfokus kepada inovasi perisian kursus multimedia interaktif yang dibekalkan oleh Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan, KPM untuk mata pelajaran Matematik. Di mana, perisian kursus ini mengandungi Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence pelajaran yang lengkap untuk mata pelajaran Matematik serta mengikut sukatan pelajaran sepenuhnya. Responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini adalah guru Matematik yang mengajar Tingkatan 1 di sekolah menengah kebangsaan ( SMK ) harian yang terletak dalam negeri Kedah sahaja. Sekolah yang terlibat dalam kajian ini adalah terdiri daripada sekolah di bandar dan luar bandar seperti yang telah dikategorikan oleh Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri Kedah. Kajian ini juga terbatas kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam mata pelajaran Matematik sahaja. Penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam mata pelajaran Sains tidak dikaji. Proses pembelajaran mata pelajaran Matematik adalah kompleks dan dinamik. Pengajaran Matematik yang melibatkan konsep-konsep yang abstrak menyebabkan pelajar menghadapi kesukaran menguasai kemahiran Matematik. Perkaitan di antara satu konsep dengan konsep yang lain juga menimbulkan kekeliruan dan menyebabkan pelajar sukar memahami konsep yang baru dan berbeza-beza. Dalam perisian kursus multimedia interaktif Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence pengajaran disusun dan dipersembahkan secara teratur supaya pelajar dapat membina konsep dan kemahiran Matematik secara aktif dan bermakna.1.12 DEFINISI OPERASIONALDalam kajian ini, terdapat istilah-istilah yang perlu diberi definisi untuk pemahaman umum tentang sesuatu makna dan konsep. Definisi istilah tersebut adalah seperti be rikut:1.12.1 Faktor Pendifusian1.12.1 ( a ) PengalamanTahap pengetahuan dan kebolehan sedia ada guru dalam menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P.1.12.1 ( B ) Efikasi kendiriKepercayaan guru tentang kemampuan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P.1.12.1 ( degree Celsius ) Kelebihan relatifPerisian kursus multimedia interaktif yang diterima mampu menggantikan teknologi yang sedia ada serta menjadi penyelesaian kepada perkara-perkara lain.1.12.1 ( vitamin D ) KerumitanKesukaran untuk memahami dan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P.1.12.1 ( vitamin E ) SokonganLatihan tentang cara penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P, maklumat atau bahan-bahan yang boleh didapati daripada perisian kursus dan sokongan pihak pentadbiran dalam menggalakkan guru untuk menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P.1.12.1 ( vitamin E ) MasaMasa untuk mempelajari cara menggunak an perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dan membuat persediaan untuk mengajar dengan menggunakan teknologi tersebut.1.12.2 Penerimaan Perisian Kursus Multimedia InteraktifPengintegrasian perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam proses P & A ; P mata pelajaran Matematik.1.12.3 Perisian Kursus Multimedia InteraktifBahan pengajaran dalam bentuk CD-ROM yang dibekalkan untuk penggunaan guru oleh Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan untuk mata pelajaran Matematik. Perisian kursus multimedia interaktif yang dibangunkan adalah bersifat resource based berdasarkan kurikulum dan bertujuan membantu pelajar dalam aspek pembelajaran. Bahan pengajaran ini menggabungkan elemen-elemen teks, picture, grafik, animasi dan sound di dalam komputer dan pengguna boleh berinteraksi dengannya ( Putt & A ; Henderson, 1996 ) .1.12.4 Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan HarianSekolah menengah kebangsaan ( SMK ) harian yang ditentukan berdasarkan informations daripada Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri Kedah.1.12.5 Lokasi SekolahLoka si sekolah bandar atau luar bandar ditentukan berdasarkan informations daripada Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri Kedah.1.13 KESIMPULANPerkembangan ICT di Malaysia telah membawa pelbagai perubahan dalam pendidikan. Di mana, pelbagai inovasi teknologi diperkenalkan untuk meningkatkan lagi keberkesanan penyampaian pengajaran dalam bilik darjah. Perisian kursus multimedia interaktif merupakan suatu inovasi penting yang diperkenalkan dalam proses P & A ; P mata pelajaran Matematik dan Sains menerusi plan PPSMI. Pihak KPM berharap penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dapat membawa perubahan besar Dari aspek kaedah pengajaran guru dan cara pembelajaran pelajar. Walau bagaimanapun, kajian-kajian Lepas menunjukkan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru masih berada pada tahap yang rendah. Oleh itu, enam faktor yang menjadi peramal utama dalam keberkesanan pendifusian dikaji untuk melihat hubungan antara faktor-faktor tersebut dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru Matematik di Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan harian di negeri Kedah. Di samping itu, sumbangan variabel-variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah sebagai moderator hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif juga turut dikaji.BAB 2TINJAUAN LITERATUR2.1 PengenalanKajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang boleh mempengaruhi proses pendifusian dalam persekitaran pendidikan. Faktor pengalaman dan efikasi kendiri digunakan untuk mengkaji ciri-ciri penerima inovasi. Faktor kelebihan relatif dan kerumitan dipilih untuk melihat ciri-cir i inovasi itu sendiri. Manakala faktor sokongan dan Masa pula adalah berasaskan kepada ciri-ciri persekitaran di mana sesuatu inovasi akan diperkenalkan. Tinjauan literatur ini Akan memberi fokus kepada teori pendifusian inovasi, model-model, faktor-faktor pendifusian, pelaksanaan pengajaran berbantukan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dan penerimaan inovasi.2.2 Konsep dan definisi Pendifusian InovasiPendifusian inovasi ialah suatu proses bagaimana inovasi disebarkan melalui saluran komunikasi tertentu kepada ahli-ahli dalam suatu sistem sosial. Rogers ( 2003 ) menegaskan bahawa penerimaan sesuatu inovasi bergantung pada empat unsur iaitu ciri inovasi, saluran komunikasi, masa dan sistem sosial. Menurut Yusuf ( 1998 ) sesuatu inovasi yang diperkenalkan boleh dikatakan berjaya melalui proses pendifusian sekiranya lebih 84 peratus pengguna akhir telah menerima dan menggunakan inovasi itu. Dengan itu, kejayaan sesuatu inovasi banyak bergantung pada faktor pendifusian inovasi terse but. Menurut Sherry dan Gibson ( 2002 ) kajian tentang penggunaan inovasi telah dijalankan lebih daripada 30 tahun dahulu dan teori Pendifusian Rogers ( 2003 ) telah menjadi asas kepada kajian-kajian yang berkaitan dengan pendifusian inovasi. Teori Pendufisian Rogers ( 2003 ) mempunyai hubungan yang kuat dengan inovasi di dalam bidang teknologi pendidikan kerana menekankan proses penyebaran maklumat setelah berlakunya sesuatu inovasi. Menurut Rogers ( 2003 ) , sesuatu thought atau inovasi baru amat sukar diterima walaupun thought tersebut mempunyai banyak kelebihan. Ini menyebabkan kajian tentang pendifusian inovasi diberi tumpuan untuk mengenal pasti punca penerimaan atau penolakan sesuatu inovasi.2.3 Teori Pendifusian Rogers ( 2003 )Teori Pendifusian oleh Rogers sering digunakan sebagai kerangka penyelidikan oleh penyelidik di seluruh dunia. Dalam teorinya, beliau menerangkan tentang proses pendifusian, kategori penerima, sifat-sifat inovasi dan kadar pendifusian. Teori ini memberi pene kanan bahawa di samping mereka bentuk sesuatu inovasi yang baik, ahli teknologi pendidikan juga perlu memikirkan tentang cara untuk mendifusikan inovasi tersebut. Perkara utama yang perlu dititikberatkan dalam pendifusian inovasi ialah bagaimana sesuatu inovasi itu diterima dan mengapa penerimaan inovasi ini berlaku pada kadar yang berbeza. Sumber: Terjemahan dari Rogers ( 2003 )Rajah 2.1: Teori Pendifusian Inovasi Rogers ( 2003 )Rajah 2.1 menunjukkan proses pendifusian mengikut Teori Rogers ( 2003 ) . Berdasarkan teori tersebut proses pendifusian terbahagi kepada Lima langkah iaitu pengetahuan, pujukan, membuat keputusan, pelaksanaan dan pengesahan. Seseorang yang bakal menerima sesuatu inovasi perlu memahami dengan lebih mendalam tentang inovasi tersebut serta cara penggunaannya sebelum membuat keputusan untuk menerima inovasi tersebut atau sebaliknya. Apabila sesuatu komuniti masyarakat telah bersedia untuk menerima inovasi yang baru maka pereka bentuk perlu merancang cara untuk menyalurkan inovasi tersebut kepada masyarakat. Rogers ( 2003 ) menyatakan faktor- faktor utama yang mempengaruhi proses penyebaran ialah inovasi itu sendiri, bagaimana untuk menyebarkan maklumat tentang inovasi yang telah dibuat, Masa penyebaran dan struktur masyarakat di mana inovasi itu disebarkan. Teori pendifusian amat penting kerana teori ini menyatakan bahawa proses pendifusian bukanlah satu perkara yang muktamad malah merupakan satu proses berterusan yang boleh dikaji, dipermudahkan dan disokong. Menurut Rogers ( 2003 ) penerimaan seseorang individu terhadap inovasi yang diperkenalkan adalah tidak sama. Penerimaan terhadap inovasi banyak dipengaruhi oleh ciri-ciri peribadi serta latar belakang individu itu sendiri tentang sejauh mana bersedia untuk menerima inovasi. Menurut Rogers ( 2003 ) terdapat lima tahap penerima inovasi iaitu perintis ( pioneers ) ( 2.5 % ) , penerima awal ( early adoptive parents ) ( 13.5 % ) , penerima majoriti awal ( early bulk ) ( 34 % ) , penerima majoriti lewat ( late bulk ) ( 34 % ) dan penerima lembab ( dawdlers ) ( 16 % ) . Secara keseluruhannya, Teori Rogers ( 2003 ) membincangkan dengan mendalam bagaimana sesuatu yang baru sama adenosine deaminase dalam bentuk thought, teknologi, barangan atau teknik-teknik berkembang dalam berbagai-bagai khalayak sehingga diterima dan diamalkan sepenuhnya oleh masyarakat. Dalam konteks kajian ini, Teori Pendifusian Rogers digunakan untuk mengkaji penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P dalam kalangan guru dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan guru untuk menerima inovasi perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.2.4 Model-modelBerikut merupakan model-model yang digunakan dalam kajian untuk melihat pengaruh faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan teknologi perisian kursus. Technology Acceptance Model ( 1989 ) merupakan model utama yang dirujuk dalam kajian ini manakala Model Theory of Reasoned Action ( 1975 ) dan Model Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 ) digunakan untuk menyokongnya.2.4.1 Theory of Reasoned Action ( 1975 )Fishbein dan A jzen ( 1975 ) merupakan pengasas kepada Model Theory of Reasoned Action ( TRA ) . Model ini adalah asas kepada perhubungan di antara dua komponen kepercayaan iaitu persepsi terhadap kebergunaan ( sensed utility ) dan persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna ( sensed easiness of usage ) . Berdasarkan Model TRA ( Rajah 2.2 ) , niat menjadi penentu kepada berlakunya sesuatu kelakuan. Di mana, kepercayaan individu akan mempengaruhi sikap individu dan seterusnya membentuk niat yang akan menghasilkan sesuatu kelakuan. Sumber: Fishbein dan Ajzen ( 1975 )Rajah 2.2: Theory of Reasoned Action ( 1975 )Model ini menjelaskan bahawa sikap seseorang terhadap kelakuan dan norma subjektif Akan menentukan niat kelakuan. Sikap seseorang terhadap kelakuan merujuk kepada penilaiannya bahawa sama adenosine deaminase pelaksanaan sesuatu kelakuan adalah baik atau buruk. Manakala norma subjektif pula menunjukkan pengaruh sosial yang mempengaruhi seseorang sama adenosine deaminase melaksanakan sesuatu kelakuan atau tidak. Di samping itu, theoretical account TRA juga menegaskan bahawa sikap merupakan satu fungsi daripada kepercayaan. Pada umumnya, seseorang individu yang mempercayai bahawa pelaksanaan sesuatu kelakuan akan membawa hasil positif dan ini Akan menyebabkan indvidu tersebut menunjukkan satu sikap yang baik ke arah pelaksanaan kelakuan tersebut dan sebaliknya ( Fishbein dan Ajzen, 1975 ) . Model TRA telah menjadi asas kepada kewujudan Model Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 ) dan Technology Acceptance Model ( 1989 ) . Dalam konteks kajian ini, Model TRA akan digunakan untuk mengenal pasti bagaimana pengalaman guru dalam menggunakan teknologi dapat mempengaruhi penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru Matematik. Pengalaman seseorang guru akan mengurangkan kebimbangan dan menggalakkan guru untuk mengubah sikap atau tingkah lakunya untuk menerima perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dan mengintegrasikannya dalam P & A ; P mata pelajaran Matematik.2.4.2 Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 )Theory of Planned Behavior ( TPB ) diasaskan oleh Ajzen dan Madden ( 1986 ) Mereka telah mengubahsuai theoretical account TRA dengan memasukkan satu variabel tambahan iaitu persepsi kawalan kelakuan ( sensed behavioural control ) . Persepsi kawalan kelakuan merujuk kepada tanggapan seseorang individu terhadap halangan dalaman atau halangan luaran yang dihadapi semasa melakukan sesuatu kelakuan ( Ajzen, 1985 ) . Sumber: Ajzen dan Madden ( 1986 )Rajah 2.3: Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 )Model TPB ( Rajah 2.3 ) menjelaskan bahawa pengawalan kelakuan secara langsung mempengaruhi niat untuk melaksanakan sesuatu kelakuan dan kemungkinan juga secara langsung mempengaruhi kelakuan dalam situasi di mana pengguna berniat untuk melaksanakan sesuatu kelakuan tetapi dihalang daripada melakukan tindakan tersebut. Mengikut theoretical account TPB, kelakuan seseorang individu dapat dijelaskan melalui niat kelakuan seseorang itu di mana niat kelakuan dipengaruhi juga oleh sikap, norma subjektif dan persepsi kawalan kelakuan. Pengaplikasian theoretical account TPB dalam kajian ini dapat dilihat dari aspek bagaimana kawalan kelakuan mempengaruhi niat guru untuk menerima perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P mata pelajaran Matematik. Persepsi kawalan kelakuan yang positif dalam kalangan guru akan mempengaruhi niat guru untuk menerima perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Manakala persepsi kawalan kelakuan yang negatif boleh menyebakan wujud halangan-halangan kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Dalam konteksi kajian ini, persepsi kawalan kelakuan akan diwakili oleh variabel efikasi kendiri.2.4.3 Technology Acceptance Model ( 1989 )Technology Acceptance Model ( TAM ) dibina oleh Davis ( 1986 ) dan diperkenalkan oleh Davis, Bagozzi dan Warshaw ( 1989 ) . Model ini merupakan adaptasi daripada Model Theory of Reasoned Action. Dalam TAM terdapat dua konstruk yang penting yang terlibat dalam penerimaan teknologi maklumat iaitu persepsi terhadap kebergunaan ( sensed utility ) d an persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna ( perceived ease-of-use ) . TAM menekankan bahawa niat untuk menggunakan sesuatu sistem adalah ditentukan oleh kedua-dua persepsi terhadap kebergunaan dan persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna. Rajah 2.4 menunjukkan hubungan konstruk-konstruk dalam TAM. Sumber: Davis et Al. ( 1989 )Rajah 2.4: Technology Acceptance Model ( 1989 )Persepsi terhadap kebergunaan dijelaskan sebagai individu merasakan teknologi maklumat mudah dikendalikan untuk melaksanakan tugas-tugas yang diberikan di tempat kerja. Manakala persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna pula menjelaskan individu mempunyai persepsi bahawa penggunaan teknologi maklumat di tempat kerja akan meningkatkan kualiti kerja dan produktiviti. Kedua-dua persepsi ini Akan mempengaruhi sikap individu terhadap penggunaan sesuatu teknologi manakala sikap dan persepsi terhadap kebergunaan akan meramalkan niat perlakuan individu. Selain itu, persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna akan mempengaruhi persepsi terhadap kebergunaan. Peningkatan pengantaraan di antara pengguna Akan memberi kesan yang kuat terhadap kedua-dua persepsi ini. Tambahan pula, Davis ( 1986 ) telah menyatakan bahawa persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna akan memberi kesan positif kepada penerimaan teknologi. Dalam TAM, persepsi terhadap kebergunaan adalah faktor utama manakala persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna adalah faktor kedua menjadi penentu kepada penggunaan teknologi ( Saade & A ; Bahli, 2005 ) . Dalam konteks kajian ini, kebergunaan perisian kursus dan kesenangan menggunakan perisian kursus dikaji untuk melihat hubungan faktor-faktor tersebut terhadap penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru Matematik. Berdasarkan teori ini, faktor kebergunaan dan kesenangan mengguna perisian kursus multimedia interaktif akan mempengaruhi guru untuk menerima dan mengintegrasikan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P mata pelajaran Matematik. Model ini menjelaskan ciri-ciri yang ada pada perisian kursus multimedia interaktif akan menjadi penentu kepada penerimaan inovasi tersebut dalam kalangan guru Matematik yang mengajar Tingkatan 1.2.5 Faktor-faktor yang telah dikenal pasti menjadi halangan kepada Pendifusian dan Penerimaan InovasiPakar bidang pendifusian inovasi mendapati bahawa tidak terdapat satu faktor khas atau sekumpulan faktor yang boleh digunakan untuk menerangkan kekurangan penerimaan sesuatu inovasi. Pakar teknologi pendidikan telah men jalankan beberapa kajian untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pendifusian dan penerimaan sesuatu inovasi teknologi. Rogers ( 2001 ) telah menjalankan kajian dengan menggunakan kaedah temu bual untuk mengenal pasti halangan-halangan yang dihadapi semasa pendifusian sesuatu teknologi. Antara halangan yang dikenal pasti ialah keperluan staf sokongan bahagian teknikal, keperluan Masa yang lebih, keperluan latihan dan kekurangan perkongsian maklumat. Morris ( 2001 ) pula mendapati faktor-faktor kekurangan bantuan teknikal, kekurangan peralatan, Masa terhad, kekurangan kemahiran komputer dan ketiadaan sokongan daripada pihak pengurusan menjadi halangan kepada guru semasa menerima dan mengintegrasikan teknologi dalam pengajaran. Kajian oleh Anderson, Varnhagen dan Campbell ( 1998 ) ke atas 557 Pongo pygmaeus guru telah mengenal pasti sembilan faktor yang menjadi penghalang kepada penerimaan bahan teknologi iaitu kekurangan kewangan, kekurangan Masa, infrastruktur, perkakasan komputer, sokongan pihak pengurusan, pengetahuan tentang cara menggunakan teknologi dalam pengajaran, capaian kepada perisian, kekurangan latihan dan sokongan dan maklumat tentang teknologi yang sedia adenosine deaminase. Kajian tinjauan oleh Beggs ( 2000 ) ke atas 348 Pongo pygmaeus guru mendapati terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya pengajaran guru, teknologi yang sesuai, dan sokongan pihak pengurusan dengan penerimaan dan penggunaan teknologi. Ini menjelaskan bahawa peningkatan dalam faktor-faktor tersebut turut menyebabkan peningkatan dalam tahap penerimaan teknologi. Mohd. Sarif ( 1998 ) yang telah mengkaji tentang faktor-faktor yang menjadi penghalang kepada pendifusian teknologi pendidikan dalam kalangan guru Sekolah Menengah Sains di pantai Tamerlane semenanjung Malaysia. Mohd. Sarif telah menguji empat faktor iaitu individu, birokratik, ekonomi dan logistik dan mendapati faktor-faktor tersebut menyumbang kepada keberkesanan proses pendifusian dan peningkatan penerimaan teknologi pendidikan dalam kalangan guru. Ini menjelaskan bahawa sumbangan pelbagai faktor yang terkandung proses pendifusian menjadi penentu kepada kejayaan penerimaan sesuatu inovasi atau sebaliknya dalam kalangan komuniti penerima inovasi tersebut. Kelebihan inovasi itu sendiri hanya merupakan satu faktor yang mempengaruhi penerimaan inovasi kerana kejayaan penerimaan inovasi turut dipengaruhi oleh faktor penerima, sokongan, kemudahan, kewangan dan Masa.2.6 Faktor-faktor Pendifusian InovasiTerdapat enam faktor yang dianggap mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat dengan proses pendifusian inovasi. Faktor-faktor ini dipilih berdasarkan Teori Pendifusian Rogers ( 2003 ) dan TAM ( 1989 ) , TRA ( 1975 ) dan TPB ( 1986 ) yang berkaitan dengan proses inovasi dan difusi yang merangkumi tiga perspektif iaitu perspektif penerima, perspektif inovasi dan perspektif persekitaran.2.6.1 Perspektif PenerimaPerspektif penerima merujuk kepada ciri-ciri peribadi seseorang individu Dari segi pengalaman dan efikasi kendiri.2.6.1 ( a ) PengalamanPengala man didefinisikan sebagai tahap pengetahuan dan kebolehan sedia ada pengguna dalam menggunakan sesuatu inovasi. Bandura ( 1997 ) telah menegaskan bahawa pengalaman mungkin dapat mengurangkan kebimbangan dan menggalakkan individu untuk mengubah sikap atau tingkah lakunya. Anderson, Varnhagen dan Campbell ( 1998 ) mendapati guru teknologi yang menggunakan pelbagai plan komputer lebih mahir dan mempunyai pengalaman yang banyak berbanding guru lain. Stone dan Henry ( 2003 ) menyatakan bahawa pengalaman yang positif akan menyebabkan seseorang pengguna lebih yakin apabila menggunakan inovasi yang hampir serupa. Dengan kata lain, pengalaman Lepas yang positif akan meningkatkan keyakinan terhadap sesuatu inovasi, manakala pengalaman negatif akan menyebabkan keyakinan terhadap sesuatu inovasi semakin berkurangan. Kajian oleh Ndubisi ( 2004 ) menunjukkan bahawa pengalaman menggunakan komputer mempunyai kaitan secara tidak langsung dengan keinginan seseorang menerima teknologi baru. Dalam konteks kajian ini, pengalaman dilihat dari aspek tahap pengetahuan dan kebolehan sedia ada pengguna dalam menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P. Pengetahuan tentang teknologi dan pengalaman yang menarik akan meningkatkan sikap positif guru terhadap penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dan pengintegrasiannya dalam pengajaran, seterusnya mengurangkan atau menghilangkan kebimbangan terhadap penerimaan teknologi ( Bruce, 2005 ) .2.6.1 ( B ) Efikasi KendiriMenurut Teori Efikasi Kendiri Bandura ( 1997 ) , pertimbangan efikasi kendiri adalah berdasarkan kepada beberapa jenis maklumat. Antaranya ialah pelaksanaan prestasi, pengalaman, kebangkitan emosi dan pujukan lisan. Bandura ( 1997 ) menyatakan efikasi kendiri yang positif mampu menggalakkan pembelajaran kemahiran-kemahiran baru manakala efikasi kendiri yang negatif boleh mewujudkan halangan-halangan kepada penerokaan perkara baru. Dapatan kajian oleh Lin dan Jeffres ( 1998 ) menunjukkan guru yang mempunyai efikasi kendiri yang rendah mempunyai tahap kebimbangan yang tinggi terhadap komputer. Kesan ini akan meningkatkan halangan-halangan untuk seseorang pendidik mempelajari teknologi baru. Di samping itu, Pajares ( 2002 ) mendapati perasaan rasa selesa atau bimbang terhadap komputer boleh mempengaruhi keyakinan individu terhadap komputer. Justeru, tahap keyakinan memainkan peranan sebagai penentu yang signifikan dalam menentukan keinginan untuk mempelajari kemahiran teknologi. Bennett dan Bennett ( 2003 ) telah mengkaji tentang ciri-ciri teknologi yang boleh mempengaruhi penerimaan teknologi tersebut dalam P & A ; P. Berdasarkan dapatan kajian, Bennett dan Bennett merumuskan bahawa kekurangan bajet dan kelemahan teknologi bukan lagi menjadi faktor utama penerimaan sesuatu teknologi. Bennett dan Bennett mendapati kekurangan keyakinan guru terhadap kemampuan teknologi dan kurangnya kesediaan guru dalam menerima sesuatu teknologi merupakan faktor penting yang menentukan penerimaan sesuatu teknologi baru dalam P & A ; P.2.6.2 Perspektif InovasiPerspektif Inovasi merujuk kepada ciri-ciri inovasi itu sendiri Dari segi kelebihan relatif dan kerumitan dalam penerimaannya.2.6.2 ( a ) Kelebihan RelatifKelebihan relatif ditakrifkan sebagai ciri-ciri inovasi yang dianggap lebih baik, mampu menggantikan teknologi yang sedia ada serta menjadi penyelesaian kepada perkara-perkara lain ( Rogers, 2003 ) . Tahap kelebihan relatif sesuatu inovasi sering dikaitkan dengan aspek keuntungan, prestij sosial atau faedah lain. Kelebihan relatif guru dijangka dapat meningkatkan tahap penerimaan sesuatu inovasi ( Moore & A ; Benbasat, 1991 ) . Rogers ( 2001 ) merumuskan bahawa kelebihan relatif sesuatu inovasi akan mempengaruhi kadar pendifusian secara positif. Butler dan Sellbom ( 2002 ) telah menjalankan kajian tinjauan ke atas 410 Pongo pygmaeus guru untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi guru menerima teknologi pengajaran dan kekangan-kekangan yang dihadapi semasa menerima sesuatu teknologi pengajaran. Dapatan kajian Butler dan Sellbom ( 2002 ) menunjukkan kelebihan teknologi itu sendiri menjadi faktor yang penting dalam membantu guru membuat keputusan menerima dan menggunakan sesuatu teknologi dalam P & A ; P.2.6.2 ( B ) KerumitanKerumitan dimaksudkan kesukaran untuk memahami dan menggunakan sesuatu inovasi teknologi pendidikan ( Rogers, 2003 ) . Sesuatu inovasi yang dianggap rumit untuk diguna Akan menghadapi pelbagai halangan dalam usaha untuk menggalakkan penerimaan dan proses pendifusian berbanding inovasi yang lebih mudah untuk dipelajari ( Moore & A ; Benbasat, 1991 ) . Oleh itu, Rogers ( 2003 ) merumuskan bahawa tahap kerumitan sesuatu inovasi akan memberikan kesan yang negatif ke atas tahap pendifusian sesuatu ino vasi. Dalam konteks kajian ini, kerumitan penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dikaji. Lin dan Jeffres ( 1998 ) mendapati wujud hubungan yang positif antara kemudahan penggunaan dan tingkah laku. Lin dan Jeffres ( 1998 ) mendapati kemudahan penggunaan menjadi faktor penentu penerimaan sesuatu inovasi. Ini menjelaskan bahawa sekiranya penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif menjadi kompleks dan menyukarkan guru, ia Akan memberi kesan kepada tahap penerimaannya.2.6.3 Perspektif PersekitaranPerspektif Persekitaran pula merujuk kepada persepsi dan sokongan persekitaran dari segi sokongan dan Masa.2.6.3 ( a ) SokonganFarquhar dan Surry ( 1997 ) berpendapat gabungan faktor-faktor organisasi dan faktor-faktor penerimaan sesuatu inovasi oleh individu amat mempengaruhi proses pendifusian dan penggunaan sesuatu produk pendidikan. Farquhar dan Surry ( 1997 ) menyatakan bahawa kekurangan sokongan persekitaran boleh menjadi penghalang utama kejayaan sesuatu pendifusian inovasi. Groves dan Zemel ( 2000 ) mendapati aspek sokongan seperti latihan tentang cara penggunaan sesuatu teknologi, maklumat atau bahan-bahan yang boleh didapati, dan sokongan pihak pentadbiran adalah faktor-faktor yang penting yang mempengaruhi penggunaan teknologi dalam pendidikan. Morris ( 2001 ) pula mendapati kekurangan sokongan teknikal, tidak mempunyai kelengkapan yang mencukupi atau perisian dan kekurangan guru atau sokongan pentadbiran adalah antara faktor-faktor yang menghalang guru dalam mengaplikasikan teknologi pendidikan dalam proses P & A ; P. Dalam kajian lain, Askar dan Usluel ( 2005 ) telah menjalankan temu bual ke atas 27 orang guru untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pendifusian Komputer di sekolah. Hasil temu bual menunjukkan faktor kekurangan sokongan dari segi penyediaan kemudahan perkakasan dan perisian, peruntukan bajet untuk membeli peralatan teknologi dan latihan kepada guru menjadi penghalang utama dalam mendifusikan teknologi komputer di sekolah.2.6.3 ( B ) MasaKajian oleh Seminoff dan Wepner ( 1997 ) menunjukkan bahawa guru kurang menggunakan teknologi dalam pengajaran kerana mereka tidak diberikan Masa untuk membuat persediaan. Dalam kajian ini, faktor Masa dikaji untuk melihat pengaruh masa dan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam pengajaran. Dalam kajian mengenai faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi penggunaan teknologi dan halangan-halangan untuk penggunaan teknologi, Groves dan Zemel ( 2000 ) mendapati masa interaksi memainkan peranan yang penting dalam mempengaruhi penggun aan sesuatu inovasi kerana guru memerlukan Masa untuk mempelajarinya. Norhayati ( 2000 ) telah menjalankan ke atas 15 orang guru yang mengajar mata pelajaran komputer dalam pendidikan. Dapatan kajian Norhayati menunjukkan guru menghadapi masalah kekangan masa untuk menyediakan bahan pengajaran yang berbantukan komputer kerana jadual waktu pengajaran yang padat dan dibebani dengan tugas-tugas lain. Braak ( 2001 ) yang telah mengkaji tentang faktor yang mempengaruhi penerimaan teknologi dalam kalangan guru sekolah menengah mendapati kekurangan masa merupakan antara faktor utama yang menyebabkan kurangnya penerimaan dan penggunaan teknologi Computer Mediated Communications ( CMC ) dalam P & A ; P. Oleh yang demikian, guru perlu diberi Masa yang mencukupi untuk membuat persediaan mengajar dengan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Beban tugas guru yang mengajar mata pelajaran Matematik, Sains dan Teknologi perlu dikurangkan supaya mereka mempunyai Masa untuk meneroka inovasi baru dan mengaplikasikannya dalam P & A ; P ( Poe, 2000 ) .2.7 Penerimaan Inovasi dengan variabel Jantina, Umur, Pengalaman Mengajar dan Lokasi SekolahKajian oleh Norhayati ( 2000 ) ke atas guru-guru yang mengajar mata pelajaran komputer dalam pendidikan menunjukkan latar belakang guru amat mempengaruhi tahap penerimaan komputer dalam P & A ; P. Selain itu, Shahrinaz ( 2009 ) telah membuat kajian tentang penerimaan web log sebagai alat pembelajaran dalam kalangan pelajar universiti swasta. Beliau mendapati faktor latar belakang responden seperti jantina, umur dan pengalaman yang dijadikan sebagai variabel moderator memberi sumbangan kepada peningkatan dalam niat pelajar untuk menerima teknolo gi web log sebagai alat pembelajaran. Kajian oleh Chen ( 1986 ) tentang jantina dan komputer mendapati responden lelaki mempunyai sikap yang lebih positif berbanding responden perempuan. Dupagne dan Krendl ( 1992 ) juga menyatakan bahawa guru lelaki lebih bersikap positif tentang komputer jika dibandingkan dengan guru perempuan. Walau bagaimanapun, kajian oleh Abdul Wahab Kamaliah dan Hasrina ( 2006 ) tentang penerimaan teknologi pendidikan dalam kalangan guru sekolah menengah di negeri Pulau Pinang mendapati tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara guru lelaki dan guru perempuan dalam penerimaan komputer dalam P & A ; P. Namun demikian, Phang ( 1998 ) telah menjalankan kajian penerimaan komputer dalam kalangan guru sekolah menengah dan mendapati terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan di antara umur guru dan penerimaan komputer. Walaupun guru yang lebih tua mempunyai sikap yang positif terhadap komputer tetapi tahap penerimaan komputer mereka adalah lebih rendah berbanding dengan guru yang muda. Manakala kajian oleh Abdul Wahab et Al. ( 2006 ) menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara kategori umur Dari segi penerimaan teknologi pendidikan dalam proses P & A ; P. Kamarudin ( 1997 ) telah menjalankan kajian tentang literasi komputer dalam kalangan guru sekolah menengah di Daerah Kuala Muda/Yan, Kedah. Dapatan kajian beliau menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan dalam kalangan guru yang mempunyai pengalaman mengajar yang berlainan. Manakala kajian oleh Ting ( 2004 ) tentang tahap penerimaan komputer dalam kalangan guru Kemahiran Hidup di SMK di Daerah Johor Bharu mendapati guru yang berpengalaman mengajar lebih lama mempunyai tahap penerimaan komputer yang lebih tinggi. Bagi mengukur variabel lokasi sekolah, dapatan kajian Kamarudin ( 1997 ) menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan dalam tahap literasi di antara guru-guru yang bertugas di sekolah dalam bandar dan di luar bandar. Justeru, kajian oleh Siti Norazlina ( 2008 ) untuk mengenal pasti halangan yang dihadapi dalam penggunaan komputer dan ICT dalam kalangan guru SMK luar bandar di Daerah Kulai Jaya mendapati tahap penggunaan komputer dan ICT dalam kalangan guru masih sederhana. Dapatan menunjukkan kekurangan kemudahan merupakan halangan utama dalam penggunaan komputer dan ICT di sekolah luar band